BIOPLAN POSTING 2001-5-19
BIOPLAN POSTING 2001-5-19
Ken Creighton <ken.creighton@undp.org>
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05/02/01 05:31 PM
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Ken Creighton <ken.creighton@undp.org>
Dear Bioplan readers,
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server "The Overstory" that focusses on biodiversity in forestry and
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UNDP Coordinator
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::::::::::::::::::::
Overstory #82 - Introduction to Indigenous Knowledge
By Steve Langill
::::: What is Indigenous Knowledge? :::::
::::: Indigenous versus Local Knowledge :::::
::::: Topics Covered by Indigenous Knowledge Research :::::
::::: Types of Indigenous Knowledge :::::
::::: Importance of Indigenous Knowledge :::::
::::: Limitations of Indigenous Knowledge :::::
::::: The Loss of Indigenous Knowledge :::::
::::: Summary :::::
::::: References :::::
::::: Original Source :::::
::::: About the Author ::::
::::: Web links :::::
::::: Related Editions of The Overstory :::::
::::: Traditional Knowledge Summit in Hawaii :::::
::::: Publisher Notes :::::
::::::::::::::::::::
Indigenous knowledge (IK) is, broadly speaking, the knowledge used
by local people to make a living in a particular environment (Warren, 1991).
Terms used in the field of sustainable development to designate this
concept include indigenous technical knowledge, traditional environmental
knowledge, rural knowledge, local knowledge and farmer's or pastoralist's
knowledge. Indigenous knowledge can be defined as "A body of knowledge
built up by a group of people through generations of living in close
contact with nature" (Johnson, 1992). Generally speaking, such knowledge
evolves in the local environment, so that it is specifically adapted
to the requirements of local people and conditions. It is also creative
and
experimental, constantly incorporating outside influences and inside
innovations to meet new conditions. It is usually a mistake to think of
indigenous knowledge as 'old-fashioned,' 'backwards,' 'static' or 'unchanging.'
::::: Indigenous versus Local Knowledge :::::
Indigenous people are the original inhabitants of a particular geographic
location, who have a culture and belief system distinct from the
international system of knowledge (e.g., the Tribal, Native, First,
or Aboriginal people of an area). Some feel that such a definition is too
narrow, in that it excludes peoples who may have lived in an area for
a long period of time but are not the original inhabitants. This has led
to widespread use of the term local knowledge, a broader concept which
refers to the knowledge possessed by any group living off the land in a
particular area for a long period of time. Under this approach, it
is not necessary to know if the people in question are the original inhabitants
of an area,
the important thing is to learn how people - aboriginal or non-aboriginal
- in a particular area view and interact with their environment, in order
that their knowledge can be mobilized for the design of appropriate
interventions. To add confusion, the term 'indigenous knowledge' may
also be used in this latter sense, to refer to 'local knowledge,' with
'indigenous' referring to the in situ nature of the knowledge, rather
than to the 'origins' of the group in question. To simplify things,
the two terms are used interchangeably in this article.
::::: Types of Indigenous Knowledge :::::
While IK research originally emphasized indigenous technical knowledge
of the environment, it is now accepted that the concept of IK goes beyond
this narrow interpretation. IK is now considered to be cultural knowledge
in its broadest sense, including all of the social, political, economic
and
spiritual aspects of a local way of life. Sustainable development
researchers, however, have found the following categories of IK to be of
particular interest: resource management knowledge and the tools, techniques,
practices and rules related to pastoralism, agriculture,
agroforestry, water management and the gathering of wild food; classification
systems for plants, animals, soils, water and weather;
empirical knowledge about flora, fauna and inanimate resources and
their practical uses; and the worldview or way the local group perceives
its
relationship to the natural world (Emery, 1996).
While research may focus on a particular category or type of IK, any
IK
under investigation must be viewed in terms of the overall cultural
context. IK is embedded in a dynamic system in which spirituality,
kinship,local politics and other factors are tied together and influence
one
another. Researchers should be prepared to examine any other aspects
of
a culture that may play an important role in shaping the IK in question.
For example, religion is an integral part of IK and cannot necessarily
be
separated from technical forms of knowledge. Spiritual beliefs about
nature may influence how resources are managed and how willing people
are to
adopt new resource management strategies (IIRR, 1996a).
::::: Topics Covered by IK Research :::::
local organization, controls, and enforcement - institutions
for
resource management; common property management practices; decision-making
processes; conflict management practices; traditional laws, rights,
taboos and rituals; and community controls on harvesting.
social networks - kinship ties and their effect on power
relations,
economic strategies and allocation of resources.
local classification and quantification - a community`s
definitions
and classification systems for plants, animals, soils, water, air,
and
weather; and indigenous methods of counting and quantifying.
learning systems - indigenous methods of imparting knowledge;
indigenous approaches to innovation and experimentation; and indigenous
specialists.
pastoral systems - herd movement; range evaluation and monitoring;
animal breeding and production; traditional fodder and forage species
and their
specific uses; animal diseases and traditional ethnoveterinary medicine.
agriculture - farming and crop systems; indigenous indicators
to
determine favorable times to prepare, plant, and harvest gardens; land
preparation practices; ways to propagate plants; seed storage and
processing; crop planting, harvesting and storage practices; food
processing and marketing; and pest management systems and plant
protection methods.
agroforestry - the management of forest plots and trees;
the knowledge
and use of forest plants and animals; and the interrelationships between
trees, crops, herds and soil fertility.
water - traditional water-management and water conservation
systems;
traditional techniques for irrigation; and use of specific species
for water conservation.
soil - soil conservation practices; the use of specific
species for
soil conservation; and soil fertility enhancement practices.
plants - as a source of wild food, building material, household tools,
personal uses (dyes, perfumes, soaps), fuel wood and charcoal, medicinal
purposes.
wildlife - animal behavior, habitats, uses.
worldview - views of the universe and humanity`s place within
it,
relationship between humans and nature, myths, beliefs, customs.
(Source: adapted from Grenier, 1998; and Matowanyika, 1994)
::::: Importance of Indigenous Knowledge :::::
There are two basic reasons why it is important for researchers to
consider IK when carrying out research projects. First and foremost,
incorporating IK into research projects can contribute to local empowerment
and
development, increasing self-sufficiency and strengthening
self-determination (Thrupp, 1989). Utilizing IK in research projects
and
management plans gives it legitimacy and credibility in the eyes of
both
local people and outside scientists, increasing cultural pride and
thus
motivation to solve local problems with local ingenuity and resources
(ibid.). Local capacity-building is a crucial aspect of sustainable
development, and researchers and development specialists should design
approaches which support and strengthen appropriate indigenous knowledge
and institutions.
Second, indigenous people can provide valuable input about the local
environment and how to effectively manage its natural resources. Outside
interest in indigenous knowledge systems has been fueled by the recent
worldwide ecological crisis and the realization that its causes lie
partly in the overexploitation of natural resources based on inappropriate
attitudes and technologies. Scientists now recognize that indigenous
people have managed the environments in which they have lived for generations,
often without significantly damaging local ecologies (Emery, 1996).
Many
feel that indigenous knowledge can thus provide a powerful basis from
which alternative ways of managing resources can be developed. IK technologies
and know-how have an advantage over introduced forms in that they rely
on locally available skills and materials and are thus often more
cost-effective than introducing exotic technologies from outside sources
(IIRR, 1996a). As well, local people are familiar with them and so
do
not need any specialized training (ibid.).
The following are some of the features of IK which have relevance to
conservation and sustainable development:
* locally appropriate: IK represents a way of life that has evolved
with
the local environment, so it is specifically adapted to the requirements
of local conditions.
* restraint in resource exploitation: production is for subsistence
needs only; only what is needed for immediate survival is taken from
the
environment.
* diversified production systems: there is no overexploitation of a
single resource; risk is often spread out by utilizing a number of
subsistence
strategies.
* respect for nature: a 'conservation ethic' often exists. The land
is
considered sacred, humans are dependent on nature for survival, all
species are interconnected.
* flexible: IK is able to adapt to new conditions and incorporate
outside knowledge.
* social responsibility: there are strong family and community ties,
and
with them feelings of obligation and responsibility to preserve the
land
for future generations. (Source: Dewalt, 1994)
::::: Limitations of Indigenous Knowledge :::::
As with scientific knowledge, however, IK has its limitations, and these
must be recognized. IK is sometimes accepted uncritically because of
naive notions that whatever indigenous people do is naturally in harmony
with
the environment. There is historical and contemporary evidence that
indigenous peoples have also committed environmental 'sins' through
over-grazing,
over-hunting, or over-cultivation of the land. It is misleading to
think
of IK as always being 'good,' 'right' or 'sustainable'.
For example, a critical assumption of indigenous knowledge approaches
is
that local people have a good understanding of the natural resource
base
because they have lived in the same, or similar, environment for many
generations, and have accumulated and passed on knowledge of the natural
conditions, soils, vegetation, food and medicinal plants etc. However,
under conditions where the local people are in fact recent migrants
from
a quite different ecological zone, they may not have much experience
yet
with their new environment. In these circumstances, some indigenous
knowledge
of the people may be helpful, or it may cause problems (e.g., use of
agricultural systems adapted to other ecological zones). Therefore
it is
important, especially when dealing with recent migrants, to evaluate
the
relevance of different kinds of indigenous knowledge to local
conditions.
Indigenous knowledge can also be eroded by wider economic and social
forces. Pressure on indigenous peoples to integrate with larger
societies is often great, and as they become more integrated, the social
structures which generate indigenous knowledge and practices can break
down. The
growth of national and international markets, the imposition of
educational and religious systems and the impact of various development
processes
are leading more and more to the 'homogenization' of the world`s cultures
(Grenier, 1998). Consequently, indigenous beliefs, values, customs,
know-how and practices may be altered and the resulting knowledge base
incomplete.
Sometimes IK that was once well-adapted and effective for securing a
livelihood in a particular environment becomes inappropriate under
conditions of environmental degradation (Thrupp, 1989). Although
IK
systems have a certain amount of flexibility in adapting to ecological
change, when change is particularly rapid or drastic, the knowledge
associated with them may be rendered unsuitable and possibly damaging
in
the altered conditions (Grenier, 1998).
Finally, an often overlooked feature of IK which needs to be taken into
account is that, like scientific knowledge, sometimes the knowledge
which local people rely on is wrong or even harmful (Thrupp, 1989).
Practices
based on, for example, mistaken beliefs, faulty experimentation, or
inaccurate information can be dangerous and may even be a barrier to
improving the well-being of indigenous people. However, researchers
need
to be careful when making such judgements.
::::: The Loss of Indigenous Knowledge :::::
With the rapid environmental, social, economic and political changes
occurring in many areas inhabited by indigenous people comes the danger
that the IK they possess will be overwhelmed and lost forever. Younger
generations are acquiring different values and lifestyles as a result
of
exposure to global and national influences, and traditional communication
networks are breaking down, meaning that Elders are dying without
passing their knowledge on to children. In some cases, the actual existence
of
indigenous people themselves is threatened. Researchers can assist
in
preserving IK through the following:
* record and use IK: document IK
so that both the scientific and
local community have access to it and can utilize it in the formulation
of
sustainable development plans.
* raise awareness in the community
about the value of IK: record
and share IK success stories in songs, plays, story-telling, videos
and other
traditional or modern means of communication. Encourage people to take
pride in their knowledge.
* help communities record and document
their local practices: Get
local people involved in recording their IK by training them as researchers
and providing means of documentation (computers, video equipment, etc.).
* make IK available: disseminate
IK back to the community through
newsletters, videos, books and other media.
* observe intellectual property
rights: have agreements so that IK
is not misused and benefits return to the community from which it originates.
(Source: IIRR, 1996a)
::::: Summary :::::
Indigenous knowledge (IK) is the knowledge used by local people to make
a living in a particular environment. It evolves in situ and is dynamic
and creative, constantly growing and adapting to meet new conditions.
The
term 'indigenous knowledge' sometimes refers to the knowledge possessed
by
the original inhabitants of an area, while the term 'local knowledge'
is a
broader term which refers to the knowledge of any people who have lived
in an area for a long period of time. IK is considered to be cultural
knowledge in its broadest sense. It is embedded in a dynamic system
in
which spirituality, kinship, local politics and other factors are tied
together and influence one another, and researchers must take this
into
account when examining a particular part of the IK system. IK has many
positive aspects, and incorporating IK into projects can contribute
to
local empowerment and can provide valuable input for alternative natural
resource management strategies. However, IK also has its limitations,
and researchers should not make the mistake of romanticizing it and
believing that whatever indigenous people do is right or sustainable.
IK
researchers should also play a part in stemming the loss of IK, by
helping local
people record and use their knowledge.
::::: References :::::
Dewalt, B.R. 1994. "Using indigenous knowledge to improve agriculture
and natural resource management." Human Organization 53 (2). pp.123-131.
Emery, A.R. 1996. The Participation of Indigenous Peoples and Their
Knowledge in Environmental Assessment and Development Planning (draft).
Centre for Traditional Knowledge: Ottawa, Canada.
Grenier, L. 1998. Working With Indigenous Knowledge: A Guide For
Researchers. IDRC: Ottawa, Canada.
IIRR (International Institute of Rural Reconstruction). 1996a. Recording
and Using Indigenous Knowledge: A Manual. IIRR: Silang, Cavite,
Philippines.
Johnson, M. 1992. Lore: Capturing Traditional Environmental Knowledge.
IDRC: Ottawa, Canada.
Matowanyika, J. 1994. "What are the issues on indigenous knowledge
systems in southern Africa?" In Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Natural
Resource Management in Southern Africa. Report of the Southern Africa
Regional
Workshop, Harare, Zimbabwe, 20-22 April 1994. IUCN-ROSA: Zimbabwe.
Thrupp, L.A. 1989. "Legitimizing Local Knowledge: From Displacement
to
Empowerment for Third World People". Agriculture and Human Values.
Summer Issue. Pp.13-24.
Warren, D.M. 1991. Using Indigenous Knowledge for Agricultural
Development. World Bank Discussion Paper 127. Washington, D.C.
::::: Original Source :::::
This edition of The Overstory is excerpted with the kind permission
of
the publisher from:
Langill, S. 1999. Indigenous Knowledge: A Resource Kit for Sustainable
Development Researchers in Dryland Africa. People, Land and Water
Program Initiative, IDRC, Ottawa, Canada. Web site:
<http://www.idrc.ca/plaw/11e-IK.html> ©1999 IDRC.
For further information about this publication, contact: Research
Officer People, Land and Water, International Development Research
Centre
(IDRC) PO Box 8500, Ottawa, Ontario K1G 3H9, Canada; Tel: (1-613) 236-6163;
Fax:(1-613) 567-7748; E-mail: <plaw@idrc.ca>; Web site for People,
Land and
Water Program Initiative: <http://www.idrc.ca/plaw/03e-start.html>,
and
International Development Research Centre (IDRC)'s web site:
<http://www.idrc.ca>
::::: About the Author :::::
Steve Langill has been a Research Associate with the International
Development Research Centre in Ottawa, Canada for the past four years.
He holds a Master's degree in Anthropology from Carleton University
in
Ottawa and has just completed a teaching degree at the University of
Ottawa.
His publications include Indigenous Knowledge: A Resource Kit for
Sustainable Development Researchers in Dryland Africa (1999), the Community-Based
Natural Resource Management Social Science Resource Kits on Participatory
Research, Indigenous Knowledge, Institutional Analysis and Common
Property (1998), and Indigenous Knowledge of Desertification: A Progress
Report
from the Desert Margins Program in Kenya, co-authored by A.J.N. Ndathi
(1998). Mr. Langill can be contacted at <slangill@idrc.ca>.
::::: Web Links :::::
Centre for International Research and Advisory Networks (CIRAN) presents
the Indigenous Knowledge Homepage which aims to facilitate and improve
the exchange of information within the International IK Network:
<http://www.nuffic.nl/ik-pages/index.html>
Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor (IKDM) serves those with
an
interest in the role of indigenous knowledge in participatory approaches
to sustainable development: <http://www.nuffic.nl/ciran/ikdm/index.html>
Center for Indigenous Knowledge For Agriculture and Rural Development
(CIKARD) focuses on preserving and using the local knowledge of farmers
and other rural people around the globe:
<http://monet.npi.msu.su/iitap-mirror/cikard/cikard.html>
International Institute of Rural Reconstruction's Indigenous Knowledge
Manual covers participatory methods for capturing information on
indigenous knowledge: <http://www.panasia.org.sg/iirr/ikmanual/>
::::: Related Editions of The Overstory :::::
The Overstory #76--Ethnoforestry
The Overstory #74--Microenvironments (Part 2)
<http://www.agroforester.com/overstory/overstory74.html>
The Overstory #64--Homegardens
<http://www.agroforester.com/overstory/overstory64.html>
The Overstory #51--Expanding Traditional Agroforests
<http://www.agroforester.com/overstory/overstory51.html>
The Overstory #49--Traditional Pacific Island Agroforestry Systems
<http://www.agroforester.com/overstory/overstory49.html>
The Overstory #34--Forest Islands (Kayapo Example)
<http://www.agroforester.com/overstory/overstory34.html>
The Overstory #15--Cultivating Connections with Other Farmers
<http://www.agroforester.com/overstory/overstory15.html>
::::: Traditional Knowledge Summit in Hawaii :::::
"Building Bridges with Traditional Knowledge II - An International
Summit Meeting on Issues Involving Indigenous Peoples, Conservation,
Sustainable Development and Ethnoscience" is a five-day summit (May
28 - June 1,
2001, Honolulu, Hawaii) intended to start dialogues between groups
who have or
use traditional knowledge and natural resources. These dialogues will
lead to the development of positive long-term relationships that will
contribute to the maintenance of traditional knowledge, lead to re-evaluation
of
economic priorities, and foster sustainable developments that respect
cultural self-determination.
The Building Bridges with Traditional Knowledge Summit is unique in
bringing people together who do not normally meet: indigenous people,
grass roots organizations, government planners, non-governmental
organizations, scientists and conservationists. It provides a forum
in which
individuals are encouraged to communicate, establish relationships,
and develop
better understandings of each other's positions and needs. For more
information
and a continuously updated web site, visit:
<http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/traditionalknowledge> or E-mail:
<bbt2@hawaii.edu>
::::::::::::::::::::
::::: Publisher Notes :::::
Publisher: Permanent Agriculture Resources, P.O. Box 428, Holualoa,
HI
96725 USA; Tel: 808-324-4427; Fax: 808-324-4129; E-mail:
<par@agroforestry.net>; Web site: <http://www.agroforestry.net>.
Editors: Craig R. Elevitch and Kim M. Wilkinson.
Past editions of The Overstory: <http://www.overstory.org>.
This publication is Copyright 2001. All rights reserved worldwide.
For
conditions of use please send an e-mail to <par@agroforestry.net>
or
write to Permanent Agriculture Resources at the address above.
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