At
the dawn of the third millennium, a powerful and complex web of interactions
is contributing to unprecedented global trends in environmental degradation.
These forces include rapid globalization and urbanization, pervasive
poverty, unsustainable consumption patterns and population growth. Often
serving to compound the effects and intensity of the environmental problems
described in the previous section, global environmental challenges require
concerted responses on the part of the international community. Global
climate change, the depletion of the ozone layer, desertification, deforestation,
the loss of the planet’s biological diversity and the transboundary
movements of hazardous wastes and chemicals are all environmental problems
that touch every nation and adversely affect the lives and health of
their populations. As with other environment-related challenges, children
are disproportionately vulnerable to and suffer most from the effects
of these global trends. Moreover, all of these global environmental trends have long-term effects on people and societies and are either difficult or impossible to reverse over the period of one generation. Unless effective global actions are taken early, we will end up plundering our children’s heritage and future in an unprecedented way. This chapter describes five major global environmental problems and points to the potential impact on children and future generations. Climate
Change
The seemingly small
rise of mean temperature is already showing adverse effects. One of
the consequences has been a rise in the global average sea level [1].
Another effect has been more frequent and intensified droughts in recent
decades in parts of Asia and Africa. Additionally, in most mid and high
latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere continents, precipitation has increased
by 0.5 to 1.0 per cent per decade in the 20th century [2].
The world’s
emissions of greenhouse gases, notably carbon dioxide, continue to increase.
The most recent estimates are that atmospheric concentrations of the
greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) will double or triple pre-industrial
levels by the end of this century. As a result, global surface temperature
is expected to increase by 1.4 to 5.8 degrees Celsius from 1990 to 2100
[3].
The repercussions
of climate change will disproportionately affect those who are least
able to adapt – the poor and the most vulnerable sections of society,
including children. For example, scientists project that this level
of warming could, among other things:
It is widely recognized
that climate change, by altering local weather patterns and by disturbing
life-supporting natural systems and processes, has significant implications
for human health. While the range of health effects is diverse, often
unpredictable in magnitude, and sometimes slow to emerge, children remain
among the most vulnerable to these threats. Higher temperatures,
heavier rainfall, and changes in climate variability would encourage
vectors of some infectious diseases (such as malaria, schistosomiasis,
dengue fever, yellow fever and encephalitis) to multiply and expand
into new geographical regions, intensifying the already overwhelming
threats to children from such diseases. There is also evidence
that El Niño – a vast natural climatic phenomenon that can
bring intense floods and droughts in many parts of the globe –
is becoming more frequent as a result of glo-bal warming and could further
aggravate health problems in many parts of the world. Excessive flooding
is, for example, a prime cause of cholera and other water-borne and
food-borne infections to which children are particularly susceptible.
While heavy rains
will become more frequent, there will also be more periods of drought
and increased spreading of the deserts. Scientists predict that a lack
of rain, warmer temperatures and increases in evaporation could have
severe implications in terms of water availability and food security,
reducing crop yields in Africa, further compromising child nutrition
[5].
There are also numerous
health effects, both in terms of disease and injury, associated with
extreme weather events, such as heat waves, storms and floods. Extreme
weather events can exacerbate health issues such as asthma and respiratory
problems due to worsening air pollution, precisely those diseases that
most significantly burden children. The international
response to this issue is embodied in the 1992 United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
and its 1997
Kyoto Protocol. The Convention sets principles and an agenda for
action with the ultimate objective of stabilizing greenhouse gas emissions
in the atmosphere at safe levels. It provides for: cooperation and exchange
of information; leadership by industrialized countries in modifying
long-term emission trends; financial and technological support for the
efforts of developing countries; and responses to vulnerability. The
UNFCCC has been in force since 1994 and, with over 180 countries having
ratified it, is accepted nearly universally. On the other hand, while
80 countries have signed the Kyoto Protocol, which sets legally-binding
emissions reduction targets for developed countries (5.2 per cent below
1990 levels on average in the period from 2008 to 2012), fewer than
50 countries have ratified it as this book goes to press. For the Kyoto
Protocol to enter into force and become legally binding it has to be
ratified by 55 countries, including those industrialized countries representing
at least 55 per cent of the total 1990 carbon dioxide emissions from
this group. However, of those countries that have currently ratified
the Protocol, none are among the world’s largest emitters. Efforts are continuing to have the Kyoto Protocol enter into force as early as August 2002. Headway has been made, particularly following meetings in July 2001 in Bonn, Germany and November 2001 in Marrakesh, Morocco. Governments (with the US declining) agreed to detailed rules for the implementation of the Protocol, particularly on dealing with financial and technological support to developing countries, compliance, reporting, and the Protocol's implementing mechanisms, which include emissions trading, joint implementation, and investments in clean technologies in developing countries. [ top ] Ozone
Layer Depletion Ozone in the atmosphere’s
upper layer, the stratosphere, protects humans, animals and plants from
the damaging effects of UV-B radiation from the sun. Without it, all
life on earth would cease to exist. However, the use of chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) and other ozone-depleting substances (ODS) are slowly eating
away at the stratospheric ozone layer, creating a major potential health
hazard. While the concentrations of ODS in the lower atmosphere peaked
in about 1994 and is now slowly declining due to worldwide efforts to
phase out the use of CFCs and other damaging substances, significant
health threats relating to ozone depletion persist. Past (and current)
emissions of ODS result in increases of ultraviolet radiation reaching
the Earth’s surface which can pose several health effects
[6]:
Skin cancer is the
most worrisome health impact of ozone depletion. Overexposure to the
sun’s harmful ultraviolet (UV) light may damage children’s
skin. Recent studies indicate that excessive sunburns experienced by
children 10 to 15 years of age increase by threefold the chance of developing
malignant melanoma, the most deadly kind of skin cancer, later in life
[7].
In Europe, evaluations of ultraviolet-related skin cancers suggest that,
despite the decline in ODS concentrations, skin cancer incidences will
not begin to fall until about 2060. The international response to this issue is embodied in the Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, which was concluded in Vienna in 1985. The Vienna Convention set an important precedent because nations for the first time agreed in principle to tackle a global environmental problem before its effects were felt. The Convention’s 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer has been remarkably successful. Production of the most damaging ozone-depleting substances was eliminated, except for a few critical uses, by 1996 in developed countries and should be phased out by 2010 in developing countries. Thanks to these measures, it is currently estimated the CFC concentration in the ozone layer is expected to recover to pre-1980 levels by the year 2050. [ top ] Desertification Desertification,
resulting in part from deforestation, is a significant threat to the
arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid regions of the world – which
account for 40 per cent of the Earth’s land surface. Throughout
the world, drylands still provide much of the world’s food in the
form of grain and livestock, yet close to 70 per cent of the world’s
drylands are degraded [8],
thus diminishing the productive land per capita and decreasing food
security. The most common forms of unsustainable land use are over-cultivation,
overgrazing, deforestation and poor irrigation practices. These susceptible
soils – mainly located in the savannahs of Africa, the Great Plains
and the Pampas of the Americas, the Steppes of southeast Europe and
Asia, the outback of Australia and the margins of the Mediterranean
– are particularly vulnerable due to the fact that they recover
very slowly from disturbances and further deteriorate due to rain and
wind erosion and chemical and physical deterioration of the soil structure. More than 250 million
people are directly affected by desertification and 1 billion people
in more than 100 countries are at risk [9].
These people include many of the world's poorest and most marginalized
citizens. In Africa, land degradation is threatening economic and physical
survival. Recurrent droughts increase soil degradation problems, which,
in turn, magnify the effect of drought, both of which enhance the conditions
that can cause widespread famines. The consequences of desertification
include:
These issues are addressed in the UN Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa (UNCCD), which entered into force in December 1996, and to date has been ratified by 179 countries. The Convention is implemented through action programmes, which at the national level address the underlying causes of desertification and drought and identify measures to prevent and reverse it. Deforestation
The removal of trees
decreases the ability of the soils to absorb and retain water; thus
contributing to the depletion of the groundwater aquifers, which supply
about one-third of the world’s population. Aquifers are the sole
source of water for many rural communities worldwide [11].
Cleared lands stripped of their tree cover also are more susceptible
to:
Deforestation is
also intrinsically linked to the loss of biodiversity as original rain
forests host numerous species of precious fauna and flora (see next
section). The significance of protecting rain forests for children cannot
be overemphasized. Food security and sustainability of livelihoods as
provided by forests are critical to child development. Forests also
offer climatic and water resource conservation benefits that directly
impact child health. The rich medicinal resources stored in forests
are another link to children’s welfare. International efforts in this realm were undertaken through the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF) and its successor the Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IFF). Recently, the international community decided to establish the United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF), as a new subsidiary body of the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), which is expected to contribute significantly to advancing consensus-building on the many complex issues related to forests.
[ top ] Loss
of Biodiversity One hundred and
fifty years ago, the Native American leader, Chief Seattle, is reported
to have said we humans are but a thread in the web of life. He added,
whatever we do to the web, “We do to ourselves.”
This species loss
and ecosystem disruption is causing a complex range of circumstances
with consequences to human health. In response, governments and communities
worldwide are now concerned with the purification of air and water,
maintenance of soil fertility, mitigation of floods and droughts, detoxification
and decomposition of wastes, maintaining concentrations of vital gases
and water vapour in the atmosphere, and controlling infectious agents
in the environment. In addition, the loss of biodiversity obstructs
the discovery of new medicines to treat various diseases. Another emerging
modern health concern is biosafety and the effects of advances in and
increased use of biotechnology to genetically modify foods. Public concern
about the health and ecological risks of foods made with biotechnology
has intensified in Europe and has spread rapidly to other parts of the
world, including the United States. Proponents contend that biotechnology
could help feed the developing world, cut costs, and reduce the need
for pesticides. Detractors say the health risks of the emerging technology
are unclear and the environmental hazards potentially alarming. Research
is proceeding in order to respond to the many health and environmental
questions raised and to guide eventual biotechnology regulations. The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD), which was adopted at UNCED in 1992 and has since been ratified by more than 175 countries, establishes three main goals: the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits from the use of genetic resources. In May 2000, the Convention’s Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety was opened for signature. The Protocol seeks to protect the planet’s species and ecosystems from the potential risks posed by living modified organisms, commonly referred to as genetically modified organisms, and to establish an advanced informed agreement procedure for ensuring that countries are provided with the information necessary to make informed decisions before agreeing to the import of such organisms. The Protocol has been hailed as a breakthrough from a health and environment perspective in that it is the first global treaty that formally enshrines the “precautionary approach”, as set forth in the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, as a principle of international environmental law.
|
It
is now widely recognized that global warming over the past 50 years
is largely due to human activities that have released greenhouse gases
into the atmosphere. The most recent assessment report by the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (
More
than 110 million hectares of forest, about 11 million hectares a year,
disappeared during the 1990s. Most of this loss was in developing countries.
About 45 per cent of the world’s original forests are gone
[
The
web is unravelling at an increasing rate. Both plant and animal species
have been disappearing at 50 to 100 times the natural rate, due to such
factors as the large-scale clearing and burning of forests, over-harvesting
of plants and animals, indiscriminate use of pesticides, draining and
filling of wetlands, destructive fishing practices, air pollution and
the conversion of wild lands to agricultural and urban uses. Recent
studies suggest that this high rate of extinction will accelerate even
faster, taking an increasing number of living plants and animals away
from us forever.