18 December 1998
ORIGINAL: ENGLISH
EP Governing Council of the United Nations Environment Programme UNITED NATIONS Twentieth session
Nairobi,
1-5 February 1999
Item 8 of the provisional agenda*
PREPARATIONS
FOR THE SEVENTH SESSION OF THE COMMISSION
ON
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Addendum
Activities
of the United Nations Environment Programme regarding
oceans
management
Report
of the Executive Director
Summary
The
present report and its annex, prepared pursuant to Governing Council decisions
19/14 (C) of 7 February 1997 and SS.V/3 of 22 May 1998, highlights activities
of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in the field of oceans
management, as identified in chapter 17 of Agenda 21, and is submitted for
consideration by the Governing Council as a major contribution of UNEP to the
Commission on Sustainable Development at its seventh session.
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For reasons of
economy, this document is printed in a limited number. Delegates are kindly requested to bring
their copies to meetings and not to request additional copies. |
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Suggested
action by the Governing Council
The
Governing Council may wish to:
Authorize
the Executive Director to finalize the report on UNEP and the implementation of chapter 17 of Agenda 21,
on the basis of the draft report contained in the annex to the report of the
Executive Director [1]/ and the comments made at the
Council thereon, and to transmit it to the Commission on Sustainable
Development at its seventh session.
BACKGROUND
1. In
its decision 19/14 C of 7 February 1997, the Governing Council invited the
Executive Director, within the programme of UNEP and in collaboration with the
other United Nations agencies and world bodies represented on the
Administrative Committee on Coordination (ACC) Subcommittee on Oceans and
Coastal Areas, to provide the necessary support to the Commission on
Sustainable Development in carrying out the periodic review of the world's
marine environment called for in its decision 4/15. In addition, in its decision SS.V/3 of 22 May 1998, the Governing
Council requested the Executive Director to consult with Member States,
particularly developing countries, on environmental aspects of oceans
management with a view to submitting his report thereon as a contribution to
the work of the Commission on Sustainable Development at its seventh session.
2. In
response to those requests, UNEP has prepared a draft report on UNEP and the
implementation of chapter 17 of Agenda 21, for consideration by the Governing
Council. The draft report, contained in
the annex to the present report, highlights the need for sustainable management
and use of oceans and coastal areas, and the state of the environment and
trends regarding oceans and coastal areas.
It also identifies the environmental challenges and priority issues for
coastal areas, as well as proposals for future UNEP actions to address those
challenges. The draft report
constitutes a major contribution of UNEP to the Commission on Sustainable
Development at its seventh session. It
will be revised as appropriate prior to the seventh session of the Commission,
taking full account of comments received at the third meeting of the High-Level
Committee of Ministers and Officials of UNEP and the twentieth session of the
Governing Council.
3. In
decision 19/14 C, the Governing Council also requested the Executive Director,
in cooperation with the heads of other sponsor organizations of the Joint Group
of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection
(GESAMP), to consider how that Group might most effectively contribute to the
task.
4. Accordingly,
and within the context of the assessment requirements of the Global Programme
of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based
Activities, a need was identified for regular reviews of the state of the
marine environment at the global level.
The Global Programme of Action specifically identified GESAMP as one
mechanism for developing scientific assessments of the impacts of land-based
activities on the marine environment.
At its twenty-sixth session, on the basis of a proposal from UNEP, GESAMP
established a Working Group on Marine Environmental Assessments, designating
UNEP as the lead agency. In addition,
at its twenty-seventh session, GESAMP considered the plans for undertaking an
overall assessment of the state of the marine environment by 2002 and an
assessment on land‑based activities by 1999. GESAMP also agreed to establish cooperative arrangements with the
Global International Waters Assessment in areas of mutual interest for both
assessments.
Annex
DRAFT REPORT ON UNEP AND THE IMPLEMENTATION
OF CHAPTER 17 OF AGENDA 21
CONTENTS
Paragraphs Page
I. SUSTAINABLE
MANAGEMENT AND USE OF OCEANS
AND
COASTAL AREAS....................................... 1 - 24 4
II. ROLE AND ACTIONS OF UNEP IN FACILITATING THE
IMPLEMENTATION
OF CHAPTER 17............................ 25 9
A. Legislative authority............................. 25 9
B. Focus of UNEP ocean-related activities............ 26 - 42 9
C. Sources of financial and human resources for
environmental
aspects of UNEP activities
in
coastal areas and oceans....................... 43 - 46 13
III. STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND TRENDS IN REGARD
TO
OCEANS AND COASTAL AREAS............................. 47 14
A. Overall assessment................................ 47 - 57 14
B. Special concerns.................................. 58 - 79 17
IV. MAJOR FUTURE ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES AND
PRIORITY
ISSUES FOR OCEANS AND COASTAL AREAS............ 80 - 105 21
V. PROPOSALS
FOR FUTURE UNEP ACTIONS TO ADDRESS
THE
ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES OF CHAPTER 17.............. 106 - 108 26
I. SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT AND USE OF OCEANS AND COASTAL AREAS
1. For
centuries the international approach to the oceans reflected the political and
economic interests of two predominant uses of the sea: navigation and
fishing. International environmental
law and practices were based on the principles of unfettered national
sovereignty over natural resources and absolute freedom of the seas beyond the
three-mile territorial limit. Such an
approach followed from the widely accepted ideas contained in Grotius's Mare
liberum, published in 1609.
2. At
the turn of the last century, there were relatively few multilateral or
bilateral ocean-related agreements. The
1911 Treaty for the Preservation and Protection of Fur Seals seems to have been
the first multilateral agreement concluded to protect commercially valuable
species. The important principle that
countries have responsibilities for environmental damage to foreign countries
that is caused by the transboundary effect of pollution originating within
their borders was first clearly spelled out in the 1930s, in arbitration
between Canada and the United States of America.
3. Preservation
and conservation had emerged as conceptual frameworks for the management of
natural resources in the 1940s, and resulted in a number of bilateral and
multilateral agreements and arrangements dealing with fisheries. Modern agreements regulating and
facilitating navigation date from the same period. But only during the last half of this century has it been
gradually recognized that the world's oceans are more than shipping lanes and
fishponds, and may need to be protected and regulated for a variety of multiple
and potentially conflicting uses.
4. Marine
pollution gained attention as an environmental issue only after the Second
World War. Initially, attention was
focused on petroleum hydrocarbons. With
increasing maritime transport of petroleum hydrocarbons, the soiling of beaches
by oil residues from ships' operational releases and tanker accidents became
conspicuous and attracted the attention of the media, the general public and
politicians alike. The International
Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil was negotiated and
signed, in 1954, to address the problem.
During the 1960s, the Convention was followed by the negotiation of
several additional conventions relating to interventions in case of oil
pollution casualties and to civil liability and compensation for damage by oil
pollution.
5. The
preparations for the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, held
in Stockholm in 1872, gave a major boost to the development of additional
international legal instruments. The
protection of wetlands and sites considered as the natural heritage of mankind
was covered by two global conventions:
the 1991 Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, especially
as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), and the 1972 Convention for
Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The need to protect the oceans from
pollution other than oil gained recognition.
The dumping of such pollutants was regulated by the 1972 Oslo Convention
for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping and, as the sources and
effects of pollutants entering the sea from land-based activities were
considered highly region-specific, the first regional conventions dealing with
their control were negotiated and adopted, such as the 1969 Bonn Agreement for
Cooperation in Dealing with Pollution of the North Sea by Oil.
6. The
debate at the Stockholm Conference revealed a deep division between
industrialized and developing countries over the issue of whether or not
environmental protection and economic development were compatible.
Nevertheless, concern about the risk of environmental harm prevailed and the
Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment adopted by the Conference
led to a fundamental shift in
international and national environmental law and practice.
7. The
scope of numerous international agreements adopted since 1972 has expanded
significantly: from bilateral transboundary
pollution control to global pollution control; from the preservation of
particular species to the conservation of entire ecosystems; from the control
of direct point‑source emissions to comprehensive pollution control
regimes; from agreements that take effect only at national borders to ones that
constrain activities and resources within the national borders. Indeed, there is not a single example in
which the provisions of earlier conventions have been weakened; in all cases
they have been strengthened or their scope has been expanded.
8. Two
achievements were particularly notable in the post‑Stockholm period: the protracted but ultimately successful
negotiation of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, the
negotiation of which commenced in 1970, leading to its adoption in 1982 and
entry into force in 1994, and the proliferation of regional agreements.
9. Three
main factors contributed to the development of the Convention on the Law of the
Sea, the only comprehensive global ocean‑related agreement:
(a) Bold and innovative concepts of ocean space
were advanced, along with proposals for the management of this space through an
integrated ‑ rather than the traditional sectoral - approach;
(b) The ecological integrity of the ocean, and
the power of human intervention to alter this integrity, was gradually gaining
recognition; and
(c) The resources of the ocean lying outside the
sovereignty of individual nations were increasingly regarded as the common
heritage of humankind, thus requiring new types of institutional and legal
arrangements for their management.
10. The Convention on the Law of the Sea, frequently called the
"constitution of the oceans", provides the overarching international
legal framework for the use and protection of the oceans. It is founded on the premise that the
problems of the oceans are closely interrelated and need to be considered as a
whole. It balances the rights and
obligations of coastal States with the rights and obligations of all States to
use the oceans and their resources in a rational way. In an offshore zone extending 200 miles (the exclusive economic
zone), it grants the coastal States control over living and non-living
resources, scientific research and environmental protection, subject to
specific responsibilities. The
Convention requires all States parties to conserve marine living resources, and
to protect the entire marine environment.
Its pollution control provisions cover all sources of pollution. Other issues covered by the Convention
include, inter alia, maritime boundaries, navigation and
overflight, the development and management of deep-sea minerals, piracy,
illicit drug traffic and dispute settlement.
11. Although the prevailing trend in the late 1960s and early 1970s
was to deal with the problems of oceans through global agreements, experience
demonstrated that bilateral and regional arrangements could be very effective
in dealing with specific problems of a particular region, including the
exploitation of resources in that region.
Following the successful conclusion of negotiations leading to the 1972
Oslo Convention, a large number of regional agreements were adopted with a
focus on the protection of the marine environment from pollution. These include the agreements adopted in
Helsinki and in Paris in 1974, in Barcelona in 1876, in Kuwait in 1978, in
Abidjan and Lima in 1981, in Jeddah in 1982, in Cartagena in 1983 and in Noumea
in 1986.
12. The regional agreements negotiated under the sponsorship of UNEP
took the form of comprehensive framework conventions, with articles of a quite
general nature which in themselves would have been of little practical
relevance. The conventions are,
however, supplemented with protocols and annexes specifying the actual measures
to be implemented by the contracting parties.
The general obligation specified in all conventions is to prevent,
reduce, abate, combat and control pollution in the convention area. The specific obligations common to all
conventions include: control of
pollution caused by dumping, discharges from ships, exploration and
exploitation of the continental shelf and land‑based sources; cooperation
in cases of emergencies; scientific and technical cooperation, including joint
monitoring and research programmes, data and information exchange, and
technical assistance; adoption of procedures for the determining of liability and
compensation for damage resulting from violation of the convention or its
protocols; reporting on measures adopted in implementation of the convention at
the national level.
13. The convening of the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment
and Development and the adoption of two global conventions in conjunction with
the Conference - the Convention on Biological Diversity and the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change -
represent a milestone in the development of a broader interpretation of
environmental protection, with far‑reaching implications for the
management and use of oceans and coastal areas.
14. The Conference adopted the Programme of Action for Sustainable
Development (Agenda 21), which inseparably links social and economic
development with environmental protection and stresses sustainable development
as the only approach to development which could succeed in the long term. The Conference unambiguously declared, as
one of the Agenda's basic principles, that, in order to achieve sustainable
development, environmental protection shall constitute an integral part of the
development process and cannot be considered in isolation from it.
15. Chapter 17 of the Agenda (Protection of the oceans, all kinds of
seas, including enclosed and semi-enclosed seas, and coastal areas and the
protection, rational use and development of their living resources) explicitly
recognized: that the oceans and
adjacent coastal areas form an integrated whole; that the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea provides the international basis upon which to
pursue the protection and sustainable development of the marine and coastal
environment and its resources; and that new approaches to marine and coastal
area management and development are required that are integrated in content and
are precautionary and anticipatory in ambit.
16. Accordingly, it elaborated seven programme areas on which the
protection and development of oceans and coastal areas should be focused:
(a) Integrated management and sustainable
development of coastal areas, including exclusive economic zones;
(b) Marine environmental protection;
(c) Sustainable use and conservation of marine
living resources of the high seas;
(d) Sustainable use and conservation of marine
living resources under national jurisdiction;
(e) Addressing critical uncertainties for the
management of the marine environment and climate change;
(f) Strengthening international, including
regional, cooperation and coordination; and
(g) Sustainable development of small islands.
17. From the standpoint of oceans and coastal areas, equally important
recommendations are to be found in other chapters of the Agenda, notably those
related to: integrating environment and
development in decision‑making; protecting and promoting human health;
conservation of biological diversity; management and use of freshwater
resources; and management of toxic chemicals, hazardous wastes, solid wastes
and sewage‑related issues.
18. Among the main issues which emerged and divided the countries
during the preparations for the Conference and the negotiation of the
conventions on biological diversity and climate change was the issue of
equity: was environmentally sustainable
development for present and future generations to be financed? Nowhere was this issue more manifest than
during the negotiation of agreements dealing with subjects which strongly
polarized the views and interests of developing and developed countries. Thus, during the negotiation of the
Convention on Biological Diversity and the Framework Convention on Climate
Change, the common goal to be achieved by these conventions was not
questioned. Sharp differences did
arise, however, on how these goals were to be achieved in view of the different
priorities assigned to them by different countries. The question of financial assistance for implementation of the
conventions by developing countries was a particular bone of contention.
19. The inability (or unwillingness) of developing countries to meet
their obligations without considerable financial assistance was recognized
and ‑ realizing that those conventions could not be implemented
without their cooperation - the developing countries made their
participation conditional on the
availability of new and additional financial resources enabling them to meet
the conventions' obligations.
Anticipating such problems, the Global Environment Facility (GEF) was
launched in 1991, by the agencies, organizations and countries with a particular
interest that the conventions should be effectively implemented. Currently, GEF serves as a financial
mechanism that provides grants and concessional funds to developing countries
for projects designed to protect the global environment, with a focus on
projects relevant to the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Framework
Convention on Climate Change.
Unfortunately, neither the Convention on the Law of the Sea or any other
of the ocean-related conventions carries the same weight with GEF, and ocean‑related
projects are castaways where GEF is concerned.
20. Following the adoption of Agenda 21 in 1992, and in the spirit of
recommendations made at the Earth Summit in Rio, considerable further progress
was made in strengthening international efforts in the management and use of
oceans and coastal areas. In 1993, the
Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes
and their Disposal, the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Framework
Convention on Climate Change entered into force, followed by the Convention on
the Law of the Sea, in 1994. In 1994,
the Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island
Developing States was adopted, followed, in 1995, by the adoption of the Global
Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from
Land-based Activities, the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries and the
Agreement on the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 Relating to the
Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish
Stocks. In 1996, the Protocol to the
London Convention was adopted which, once in force, will replace the 1972
Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other
Matter.
21. The Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine
Environment from Land‑based Activities is of particular importance for
furthering the goals of Agenda 21, as it represents the first all‑embracing
blueprint for sustained and effective action to deal with all land‑based
impacts upon the marine environment. It
envisages: the development and
implementation of national action programmes; cooperation to build capacities
and mobilize resources for the implementation of such programmes; promoting
access to cleaner technologies, knowledge and expertise to address land‑based
activities, and available management tools; cooperation on a regional basis;
and the establishment of a clearing-house mechanism to provide decision makers
with direct access to relevant sources of information, experience and
expertise. The development of a global,
legally binding instrument for the reduction and elimination of emissions and
discharges is identified as a further goal of the Programme, with special
attention to elimination of the production and use of persistent organic
pollutants.
22. Agenda 21 also gave new impetus to the development or
strengthening of existing science-based programmes directly relevant to the
management of oceans and coastal areas.
The International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP), launched by the
International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) in 1986, is of particular
interest from a long-term perspective.
Its overall goal is to describe and understand the interactive physical,
chemical and biological processes that regulate the total Earth system, the
unique environment that it provides for life, the changes that are occurring in
this system, and the manner in which they are influenced by human activities.
Areas of special relevance to the management of oceans and coastal areas
include: improved global change
predictions; the scientific analysis of available strategies for mitigation of
global environmental change; and strengthening the capacity of scientists in
developing countries.
23. The IOC-coordinated Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS),
coordinated by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of the
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is of
more immediate and practical relevance to managers and policy makers. Its main goal is to ensure, through
systematic observations, data and information, support to improved
decision-making and resource management.
The value and importance of GOOS were explicitly recognized in Agenda
21.
24. The Global International Water Assessment is a recent programme,
approved in late 1997, which is supported by GEF. Its overall objective is to develop a comprehensive strategic
framework for the identification of priorities for remedial and mitigation
actions in international waters, including riverbasins. The Assessment is envisaged as a set of
regional analyses of water-related problems and their social and economic
causes (policies, governance, economic and information failures, etc.).
II. ROLE AND ACTIONS OF UNEP IN FACILITATING THE
25. The legislative authority of UNEP to deal with the protection of
oceans is derived mainly from recommendations of two global conferences,
namely, the 1972 Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment and the 1992
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, recommendations of
other intergovernmental meetings, such as the meetings which adopted various
regional seas programmes, the meeting which adopted the Global Programme of
Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land‑based
Activities, and other sources. It is
the relevant resolutions of the General Assembly and decisions of the UNEP
Governing Council, however, which constitute the only formally binding
legislative authority for activities described in the next section of this
chapter.
B. Focus of UNEP ocean-related activities
26. Most UNEP activities relevant to the management of oceans and
coastal areas which predate the adoption of Agenda 21, such as the regional
seas programme, the Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS), the global
environmental information exchange network (INFOTERRA) and Earthwatch, were
recognized and endorsed by the Rio Summit as contributing to the implementation
of Agenda 21. The only new activity
specifically requested from UNEP was the convening of an intergovernmental
meeting on the protection of the marine environment from land-based
activities. With that in mind, UNEP
continued to implement its ocean-related programmes with some adjustments of
their scope and direction, in order to increase the emphasis on approaches
advocated by Agenda 21.
27. The regional seas programme, initiated in 1974, remained the
central UNEP programme providing the major legal, administrative, substantive
and financial framework for the implementation of Agenda 21, and its chapter 17
in particular. The regional seas
programme is based on periodically revised action plans adopted by high-level
intergovernmental meetings and implemented, in most cases, in the framework of
legally binding regional conventions, under the authority of the respective
contracting parties or intergovernmental meetings.
28. Currently, 12 regions are covered by adopted action plans and nine
of the action plans are supported by regional conventions. The geographic regions considered as covered
by the regional seas programme include:
the Mediterranean; west and central Africa; the wider Caribbean; eastern
Africa; the east Asian seas; the south Asian Seas; the north-west Pacific; the
Persian and Arabian Gulf; the south-east Pacific; the south Pacific; the Red
Sea; and the Black Sea. UNEP provides
the secretariat of the programmes in the first seven regions listed. Programmes in nine of the regions are
implemented in the framework of corresponding regional conventions.
29. Two of those action plans were adopted after 1992, following the
recommendation of the Rio Summit to extend the regional seas programme to those
new regions where it might be appropriate.
More than 140 countries participate in the action plans, through the
involvement of about 400 national institutions. Active support to the programme is provided by a large number of
international, intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations
participating in its implementation.
30. Whenever appropriate, the regional seas programme is used as the
main mechanism to implement the various ocean-related activities of UNEP. The overall coordination of the regional
seas programme by UNEP ensures that such activities, although implemented
regionally, remain essentially global in nature.
31. While the focus of the first action plans was on the protection of
the marine environment against pollution, plans adopted subsequently shifted
their priorities to the development and protection of the marine and coastal
environment. Revisions of the action
plans made since 1992 have broadened their scope so as to emphasize issues
related to the integrated management and use of coastal and marine environment,
along the lines recommended by Agenda 21.
The protection and management of fisheries resources is the only major
item excluded from consideration in the framework of the regional seas
programme. A further positive
development was the establishment, in one of the regions - the Mediterranean -
of a regional commission for sustainable development, as a subsidiary body of
the parties to the Barcelona Convention.
The establishment of a similar body, as a joint subsidiary body of the
Abidjan and Nairobi conventions, is in progress. In addition, work is under way on a review of the Nairobi
Convention with a view to its eventual amendment.
32. This evolution of the regional seas programme prompted UNEP to
assume one of the lead roles in promoting the concept of integrated coastal
area management. Comprehensive coastal area management plans have been and are
being developed in the framework of several regions covered by the regional
seas programme (in Albania, Algeria, Croatia, Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, Malta,
Morocco, the Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia, Turkey and elsewhere), frequently
in collaboration with the World Bank and other intergovernmental and non‑governmental
organizations. Based on the experience
accumulated through these coastal area management plans, detailed guidelines
for the integrated management of coastal and marine areas and for an integrated
approach to the development, management and use of coastal water resources were
published in 1995 and 1997, respectively, and guidelines for integrated coastal
area and river basin management are being developed. As a related activity, the Atlas of Coastal Resources of Kenya
was prepared and published in 1998.
33. The Global Plan of Action for the Conservation, Protection and
Utilization of Marine Mammals was originally prepared between UNEP and the Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), in the late
1970s. It was subsequently endorsed by
the International Whaling Commission and its Scientific Committee, to serve as
a framework for policy planning and programme formulation by international
community. In 1997, the Plan of Action
was revised but, owing to financial constraints, its implementation is in
abeyance.
34. UNEP is actively participating in the implementation of the
Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing
States, adopted in Barbados in 1994, to address the specific social, economic
and environmental problems of such States.
35. Some of the major UNEP programme elements, such as INFOTERRA,
Earthwatch, GEMS and the Global Resource Information Database (GRID), have also
made considerable contributions to the implementation of chapter 17. These include assessment and monitoring of
coastal suspended sediment concentration and vegetation conditions in the South
China Sea; vegetation mapping of the coastal zone of Cambodia; application of
the geographical information system (GIS) to coastal and marine resources for
Hainan, China; pollution management in the Saigon river estuary; assistance to
Maldives and Sri Lanka in enhancing their capacities for environmental
assessment, including the provision of equipment and training; capacity‑building
for data and information management in eight Black Sea countries; two volumes
of the Global Environment Outlook (GEO) report series, covering, inter alia,
ocean‑related issues; and a GEO small island developing States project to
address the specific problems of these States.
Further details on the Barbados Programme of Action can be found in the
draft on its implementation, prepared for the Commission on Sustainable
Development at its seventh session and contained in document UNEP/GC.20/19.
36. UNEP, as one of the implementing agencies of GEF, is specifically
responsible for catalysing the development of scientific and technical analysis
and advancing environmental management in GEF-financed activities. It provides guidance on relating these activities
to global, regional and national assessments, policy frameworks and plans, and
to international environmental agreements.
UNEP also manages the Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel (STAP), an
independent advisory body that provides scientific and technical guidance to
GEF.
37. As one of the agencies sponsoring GESAMP, which brings together
experts from the International Maritime
Organization (IMO), FAO, IOC, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the
World Health Organization (WHO), the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA),
the United Nations and UNEP, UNEP actively participated in, and financially
supported, the preparation of the GESAMP studies dealing with a variety of
issues. UNEP had had a particular
interest in the preparation of comprehensive periodic reports assessing the
state of the global marine environment.
Currently, UNEP leads the preparation of the third such report. Chapter III and IV of the present document
are largely based on material which is being considered for eventual inclusion
in that report.
38. In addition to the activities listed here, UNEP is continuing to
contribute to the implementation of chapter 17 of Agenda 21 through the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), established jointly with WMO,
and through various activities undertaken in the framework of several
conventions for which UNEP provides the secretariat, namely: the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES); the Convention for the
Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals; the Basel Convention on the
Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal; and
the Convention on Biological Diversity.
39. UNEP is also co-sponsor and active participant in a large number
of programmes and activities led by other organizations. Those of particular relevance for the
implementation of chapter 17 of Agenda 21 are:
the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI), involving IOC, UNEP and
the World Conservation Union (IUCN); the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) -
IOC, UNEP, WMO and others; the Global Investigation of Pollution in the Marine
Environment (GIPME) - IOC, UNEP and IMO; and the World Climate Programme (WCP)
- WMO, UNEP, UNESCO, FAO and the International Council of Scientific Unions
(ICSU).
40. Among the new activities flowing from the recommendations of the
Rio Summit, UNEP prepared and convened the intergovernmental meeting which
adopted, in late 1995, the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the
Marine Environment from Land‑based Activities. The final implementation plan for the Programme was endorsed by
the Governing Council in 1997. Regional
workshops were or are being organized in the framework of the regional seas
programme to identify regional problems and priorities for action, and to
initiate the development of regional strategic programmes to address land‑based
activities. The preparation of detailed
overviews of problems related to land‑based activities is under way for
each of the regions covered by the Global Programme. Under the leadership of UNEP, the results of these regional
overviews are being synthesized into a global report on the impact of
land-based activities by GESAMP. The
clearing-house which it is planned to establish under the Global Programme of
Action is being developed in cooperation with organizations designated as
having a specific role to play. A
strategy paper outlining the plans for further implementation of the Global
Plan of Action has been prepared by UNEP and discussed in informal
consultations with Governments and agencies.
Discussion of the paper with non-governmental organizations is scheduled
for November 1998. UNEP, as the
designated secretariat of the Global Programme of Action, established the
coordination office of the Programme in The Hague, in 1997, with the generous
support of the Government of the Netherlands.
41. The Global International Waters Assessment has a GEF-funded
four-year project, coordinated by UNEP, which has recently been approved. The project will focus on five critical
issues of coastal waters and associated river basins: water scarcity; pollution; habitat modification and destruction;
over‑exploitation of fisheries and other living aquatic resources; and
global changes. In addition to the
identification of problems related to those issues, the project will also
analyse their underlying root causes.
The results of the project are expected to assist Governments and the
GEF Council in establishing priorities which may be addressed by subsequent
GEF-funded activities. The city of
Kalmar in Sweden offered to host the unit coordinating the project. The host Government agreement with the
Government of Sweden and a memorandum of understanding with Kalmar University
for the implementation of the Global International Water Assessment have been
signed.
42. Several specific contributions to observance of the Year of the
Oceans were made by UNEP, or with contributions or assistance from it: a special issue of the UNEP magazine Our
Planet was dedicated to oceans; a short "IMAX Trailer" was
produced and is being shown in 75 theaters worldwide over a period of nine
months; several in‑flight videos and inputs into in-flight magazines have
been developed and are being used by some major airlines, such as KLM,
Singapore Airlines and TAP; a special booklet presenting the regional seas
programme has been printed and widely distributed; posters, stickers, pocket
calendars and postcards containing the UNEP message "Ocean for life on
Earth - Save our Seas" have been produced and widely distributed; the UNEP
magazine for children Leave it to Us was reissued in several languages,
with a special focus on oceans; a children's art competition was organized,
including oceans as one of its themes; a World Youth Declaration on Oceans was
prepared and endorsed by the World Youth Forum (Braga, Portugal August 1998); a
compact disc with songs on the theme of the oceans was released; six short
documentary film highlighting global ocean issues were prepared in cooperation
with TVE and broadcasted worldwide by BBC; a coffee-table album is being
prepared in cooperation with Living Earth Foundation; the Turner Network (CNN
and CNN International) broadcasted the UNEP ocean‑related public service
announcements from mid‑May through early June 1998; numerous press
releases and interviews have been organized, and UNEP has either convened or
participated in various meetings and conferences organized specifically to
commemorate the Year of Oceans.
C. Sources
of financial and human resources for environmental aspects of
UNEP activities in coastal areas
and oceans
43. Implementation of the UNEP ocean-related programme suffers from a
chronic shortage of financial and human resources. Since the resources derived from the Environment Fund of UNEP,
and those available through the regional trust funds directly supporting the
regional seas programme, are too limited to cover the requirements of the
programme, UNEP sought to mitigate the problem through various arrangements
involving Governments, donor agencies, intergovernmental organizations and
mechanism, as well as non‑governmental organizations.
44. A growing number of UNEP activities are being implemented and co‑financed
through partnership arrangements with Governments, intergovernmental,
international and non-governmental organizations. For example: the
Government of the Netherlands is supporting the Global Plan of Action; the
Global International Water Assessment raised close to $6 million in counterpart
contributions to match the $6.5 million provided by GEF and the $860,000
provided by the Environment Fund; the European Commission is supporting, to the
tune of $567,000, the preparation of a joint European Union/UNEP state‑of‑the‑environment
report for small island developing States participating in the Lomé Convention;
about $500,000 has been provided by the Government of Finland and close to
$800,000 has been raised by the Advisory Committee on Protection of the Sea
(ACOPS) to revitalize the coastal and marine programmes in sub-Saharan Africa,
including the convening of ministerial conferences in Maputo (July 1998) and
Cape Town (December 1998).
45. GEF has proved to be a major external source of funding for
projects implemented by UNEP. Since
1994, a total of 14 projects related to the GEF international waters focal area
have been approved, with a contribution from the GEF Trust Fund amounting to
$20.6 million. Most of these funds were
channelled to projects directly or indirectly supporting the regional seas
programme, while some funds were used in response to the needs of the
freshwater‑related programme of UNEP.
As a counterpart contribution to these projects, UNEP contributed $1.1
million in cash and about $600,000 million in kind. The cash and in‑kind contributions from participating
Governments and collaborating organizations to the same projects amounted to
$15.2 million.
46. The financial constraints are particularly felt in the work of
GESAMP, since UNEP is no longer in a position to provide adequate funding for
major assessment reports and the sponsoring agencies are reluctant to follow up
the relevant decisions of the Commission on Sustainable Development (decision
4/15) and the UNEP Governing Council (decision 19/14) which may mitigate
the Joint Group's financial problems.
III. STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND TRENDS IN REGARD TO
47. Over the past decade, the nature of the environmental problems of
the oceans and coastal areas and their causes, has remained largely unchanged
at the global level. There have been
some notable successes in addressing problems caused by specific forms of
marine pollution, and more generalized successes in improving the environmental
quality of coastal areas have been achieved in some geographic areas. On a global scale, however, the degradation
of the oceans, coastal areas and their resources has continued and, in many
places even intensified. The incidence
and extent of human activities and interventions is on the increase and is felt
over ever broader geographical areas.
In many parts of the world, the traditional uses of the oceans and
coastal areas, and the benefits derived from them, have been undermined.
48. It is now recognized that the main driving force of the problems
is ill‑planned coastal social and economic development. This awareness has led to a series of policy
decisions, the launching of new research, observation and management
programmes, a shift in the focus of action from sectoral to intersectoral
approaches and the consideration of marine affairs as an integral part of
coastal socio‑economic development.
49. Four main issues emerged during the last decade which placed the
protection of the oceans and coastal areas in a new perspective: first, the growing appreciation of the role
of the ocean in the Earth's climate system and the impact which may be expected
from climate change; second, the need for an integrated approach to the
management of the marine and coastal environment, including associated
river-basins and groundwater systems; third, the potential importance of marine
and coastal biodiversity; and, fourth, the changing perceptions about the
relative importance of various marine pollutants and other sources of
degradation.
50. Some of the pollutants once considered to have the highest global
importance are today considered less important, thanks to new research or
effective control measures. Pollution
by oil is today seen less as a global and more as a local problem, even in the
case of accidental spills. Likewise,
metals (including heavy metals) are now considered as a far smaller global
problem than, for instance, persistent organic chemicals - or pollutants,
compounds which may affect organisms at molecular or reproductive level, or
nutrients. The debate about the relevance
of anthropogenically introduced radionuclides into the marine environment still
looms large in the minds of general public and, to a lesser extent,
politicians. Although threats from
accidental releases of radionuclides which may find their way into the marine
environment cannot be ruled out, among the various categories of marine
contaminants, radionuclides probably cause the least concern from a scientific
standpoint.
51. The situation at regional and local levels has also changed. New information has alleviated some previous
concerns, such as pollution of the Arctic.
Significant reductions in the extent of pollution load have been
achieved in many places and sectors by technical and administrative
measures. Concerted action at
international and national levels has reduced the quantities of oil discharged
from ships and there is convincing evidence that, in certain geographical
areas, better management of land-based activities has led to cleaner beaches
and bathing waters, and sea-food that is safer to eat.
52. Land-based activities were recognized long ago as the most serious
source of marine contaminants and, more generally, as a threat to the integrity
of marine and coastal ecosystems. The
earliest efforts to control marine pollution were primarily directed towards
control of well defined point-sources along the coast. It is now realized that, in many instances,
point-sources may not be the major source of certain pollutants and that
pollution, as understood generally, is rivalled by other human activities which
may have an even greater impact on natural environment. Perhaps the most important shift in the
perspective has been the recognition that pollution is neither the only nor
necessarily the most severe environmental threat to the health of oceans and coast: widespread, intensive habitat modification
and resource exploitation, habitat loss, population decline and the resulting
changes in ecosystem functions probably pose even greater threats. Accordingly, the environmentally sound
management of land-based activities is today seen as the most effective way to
protect the marine environment and its resources.
53. The use of marine and coastal areas for subsistence, commerce and
recreation is increasing and there is a growing demand for both renewable and non-renewable
marine and coastal resources. The
greatest pressures stem from population growth, urbanization, industry,
agriculture, fisheries, transport, energy production and recreational
activities, clearly signifying that the land-based activities predominate.
54. Waste entering the marine environment, although curbed in many
parts of the world by improved technological processes and better waste
management practices, is still on the rise globally. The worldwide use of agrochemicals - pesticides and fertilizers
in particular ‑ and the quantity of their residues entering the oceans
are on increase.
55. Fisheries are in a shambles owing to gross mismanagement of their
exploitation. Maritime transport is
probably the only sector which, as a whole, has not significantly increased
pressure on the health of the oceans in the last decade, although coastal
navigation-related activities, such as the construction or expansion of
harbours, have important environmental effects.
56. Growing areas of the narrow coastal terrestrial strip of land and
its habitats suffer from poorly planned and regulated urbanization,
industrialization, aquaculture, tourism, port development and flood
control. Nearshore coastal waters, in
semi-enclosed bays, seas and estuaries in particular, have suffered general
decline over the last decade. The
extension of drilling into deeper waters and the expansion of fisheries have
increased the pressure on open shelf areas.
Aside from the deterioration of commercially exploited fish stocks,
however, the open oceans are still in a generally healthy state.
57. Although the nature and intensity of human pressures vary among
and within different oceanic regions, their main effects can be generalized as
the following:
(a) Degradation of water quality: While the diminished threat from some
specific pollutants is now recognized, other forms of pollution from point and
non‑point sources still seriously degrade coastal waters, particularly in
closed and semi‑enclosed seas, estuaries and groundwater systems. Toxic chemicals, nutrients, pathogens,
oxygen-demanding wastes, sediments - or silt, petroleum hydrocarbons and litter
are among the most relevant pollutants.
Polluted waters pose a considerable threat to public health, for
example, through the ingestion of contaminated water or food, or exposure
during recreational activities;
(b) Damage to ecosystems and loss of
habitats: These are common and
widespread in coastal and marine environments.
The most affected systems are in rivers, estuaries and marine waters,
adjacent to the coast. Pollution is not
the only, or even the most important, culprit.
Physical alteration and destruction of natural coastline and riverbanks
- such as land reclamation, deforestation, coastal construction, aquaculture -
mining and destructive fishing practices are equally important. So are hydrological modifications, including
large‑scale irrigation schemes, the erection of dams and creation of
reservoirs and changed land-use practices, which often lead to serious physical
degradation of habitats and significant changes in ecosystems. Wetlands, mangroves, seagrass beds and coral
reefs are particularly vulnerable. The
increasing incidence of eutrophication of coastal waters and estuaries, and
possibly of associated toxic algal blooms, are telling signs of spreading
ecosystems degradation;
(c) Resource exploitation and
overexploitation: Decline in fisheries
resources, mainly due to overfishing and fishing with inappropriate techniques,
for example, with non-selective fishing gear and the use of poisons or
explosives, poor resource management, and questionable social and economic
measures, are of concern for both freshwater and marine basins. Over-harvesting of tropical coastal
resources is of particular significance in many developing countries; and
(d) Introduction of alien species: Non-indigenous species introduced
intentionally or accidentally in an alien environment often seriously disrupt
indigenous ecosystems and may adversely affect economic activities, such as
fisheries, and may cause toxic and human health effects.
58. The issues and phenomena described in the following paragraphs,
and their consequences for the environment, are of particular concern to oceans
management.
1. Eutrophication
59. Eutrophication, i.e., increased primary productivity (growth of
plant life) in response to artificially elevated input of nutrients, is among
the most potentially damaging of all the many human influences on the oceans,
both in terms of scale and consequences.
The predominant anthropogenic sources of nutrients are agricultural
activities, such as fertilizer residues, waste from animal husbandry and human
sewage. The primary pathway of
transport, on a global scale, are riverine and atmospheric, with the former
predominant in the supply to inshore areas and the latter the dominant pathway
for transport to the open ocean. The
input of nutrients into the sea is on the increase globally and the negative
impacts of eutrophication occur with increasing frequency in ever larger areas
and a greater number of sites.
60. On local scales, eutrophication promotes the explosive growth of
phytoplankton (algal blooms) and selectively favour the growth of toxic, or
otherwise harmful species. Such blooms
may have several adverse effects. The
decay of phytoplankton biomass consumes oxygen dissolved in sea which may cause
serious oxygen depletion leading to mass mortality of fish and other
organisms. Blooms involving
toxin-producing species may lead to very serious public health problems, when
toxins are ingested through contaminated seafood. Although algal blooms occur naturally in many parts of the ocean,
there is evidence that the global frequency of blooms is increasing.
61. In addition to promoting intense local algal blooms, eutrophication
may have effects on larger scales.
Long-term increases in phytoplankton productivity, and the resulting
decay of organic matter in deeper waters, may result in periodic or permanent
oxygen depletion over large areas, specially in coastal areas with reduced
water circulation. Such anoxia, or
simply the increased input of organic matter to the bottom, has the potential
dramatically to alter bottom ecosystems.
62. Long-term increases in phytoplankton abundance also increase water
turbidity, thereby reducing the penetration of sunlight to the bottom. This adversely affects light‑dependent
communities, such as seagrass beds and coral reefs. In the case of coral reefs, eutrophication also promotes the
growth of bottom‑living seaweeds at the expense of reef‑building
corals, resulting in profound changes in the structure and function of the
reef.
2. Reduced nutrient flows
63. Just as excessive nutrient inputs can turn marine areas into
wastelands, an artificial reduction in nutrient flow can adversely affect
productivity and therefore fisheries.
Large‑scale dams, artificial freshwater reservoirs, and the
withdrawal and diversion of freshwater flows for industrial and agricultural
purposes reduce natural river inputs to the sea. The construction of the Aswan High Dam, for example, reduced the
flow of the Nile by more than 97 per cent, with a concomitant reduction in
nutrient inputs. This caused a 90 per
cent reduction in sardine landings and 75 per cent in shrimp landings from
waters adjacent to the Nile delta.
3. Increased or decreased inputs of sediments
64. Increased or decreased inputs of sediments (particles) carried by
rivers or other runoff into the sea continue significantly to affect shoreline
changes and habitats.
65. An increased supply of sediments from spreading deforestation,
soil erosion, the large‑scale moving of soils (building of dams, roads,
etc.), or the diversion of water courses, raises the sedimentation rate along
the coast. In many places this
adversely affects wetlands and deltaic habitats, and bottom‑dwelling
communities of coastal waters, such as coral reefs and seagrass beds, by
reducing light penetration and by covering them with silt.
66. Dams, artificial freshwater reservoirs and the withdrawal and
diversion of freshwater flows for industry and agriculture reduce the natural
supply of sediments to coastal waters, just as they reduce that of
nutrients. This has led to major
coastal erosion problems in many parts of the world. For instance, in the Indus delta, after the construction of
barrages, the sediment loading was reduced by about 80 per cent, leading to
rapid coastal erosion.
4. Marine pollution
67. Marine pollution stemming from the introduction of substances into
the marine environment from human activities has, historically, been the
predominant concern. An improved
appreciation of the scale of other forms of damage and threats to the marine
and coastal environment has resulted, however, in more balanced perspectives of
the severity of such classical pollutants.
Pre-eminent among contemporary concerns about marine pollutants are
nutrients (already discussed under eutrophication), endocrine disrupters,
organochalogens, petroleum hydrocarbons - largely from major oil spills at sea
- and, in a few cases, metallic compounds, such as mercury, cadmium, organotin
and copper.
68. The discharge of solid and liquid human waste into coastal waters
and in nearby coastal zone remains a major problem. Aside from being an aesthetic nuisance and ruining the amenity
value of many coastal areas, it is a major source of nutrients, increases the
health risk to bathers and consumers of marine foodstuff, and may interfere
with fisheries and navigation.
Outbreaks of cholera, typhoid and other illnesses are frequently traced
to pathogen-contaminated seafood and bathing waters. The health risk is particularly high in areas where carriers of
pathogens are common among the local population and the sewage treatment and
disposal systems are inadequate.
5. Overfishing
69. Overfishing, i.e., fishing at rates that endanger the maintenance
of the stock, is among the most severe problems presently facing marine
fisheries. This practice results in
reduced catches, excessive economic costs in harvesting, and reduced economic
benefits from fisheries. Overfishing
has reached serious levels, both in many high-sea fisheries and in coastal
waters, particularly in regions with high population densities, a high local
demand for fish and scarce employment opportunities.
70. Although, during the 1990s, fishing efforts increased, in general
the total catch has not increased since the late 1980s. In 1996, the total world production of fish,
crustaceans and molluscs reached a record level of almost 113 million tons
(94.6 million tons of fish). Marine
fisheries contributed about 87 million tons (77 per cent of total fisheries
production and 92 per cent of marine fisheries), of which amount about 50
million tons was used for direct human consumption. Six species account for 25 per cent of total capture fishery
production. In terms of tonnage, in
1996, fleets of seven countries (Chile, China, Indonesia, Japan, Peru, the
Russian Federation and the United States of America), accounted for over half
of the world's capture fishery.
71. In the mid‑1990s, catches of about 35 per cent of the stocks
were declining, 25 per cent were stable at a high level of exploitation, and 40
per cent were on increase. By contrast,
in the early 1950s, 55 per cent of the fishery stocks were underexploited. There is a consensus that there is little
scope for increasing catches by increasing fishing efforts, which would only
result in lower catch rates in most currently exploited stocks.
72. The North-west Pacific remains by far the most productive fishing
area. When known and traditional fish
stocks and fisheries are taken into account, the total marine catches from most
of the main fishing areas in the Atlantic Ocean and some in the Pacific Ocean
seem to have reached their maximum potential years ago. For that reason, substantial catch increases
from these areas are unlikely.
73. Overfishing is not the only problem associated with marine
fisheries. It is estimated that in
global commercial fisheries about 27 million tons of the biomass is wasted in
the form of by-catch and discards which, in addition to fish, include also
other groups of animals (invertebrates, reptiles, sea-birds and mammals). A number of important stocks appear to be
particularly susceptible to the impact of large-scale natural changes such as
those attributable to the El Niņo phenomenon.
Leaving aside their local and secondary effects, e.g., those caused by
eutrophication, marine pollutants are not considered to pose a major problem
for most commercial fisheries. Certain
fishing practices, such as excessive trawling and dredging and fishing with
explosives and poison, and with driftnets, have a considerable ecological
impact and contribute to the physical and ecological degradation of coastal
zones.
74. Fisheries problems can be traced to four main factors: first, many stocks, particularly in high‑seas
fisheries, are exploited on the basis of free and open access; second, in many
countries fisheries are subsidized, making fishing more profitable than it
would be without subsidies (a recent study estimated such subsidies as
totalling at least $20 billion); third, some management systems may
unintentionally encourage the overcapitalization of fishing industry; and,
fourth, a weak commitment to international cooperation through existing
fisheries bodies and agreements. The
current system could be summarized as waste of labour, capital and fisheries
resources.
75. Reducing subsidies for the fishing industry would seem to be a
major avenue towards restoring the depleted stocks and turning fisheries into a
sustainable activity. The results of
some steps taken in this direction are encouraging. The fishing fleets of most developed countries show a long-term
decrease in the number of vessels. If
the current trend continues, the global fleet of fishing vessels above 100
gross register tons (GRT) will decrease by at least 40 per cent over the next
ten years. The rate at which vessels
over 100 GRT are built is on the decrease and was less than 200 in 1997. At the same time there are now more than
10,000 vessels over 20 years old. Over
the next 10 years, most of these vessels are likely to be scrapped.
6. Habitat and ecosystem alteration
76. Increasing habitat and ecosystem alteration, either by physical
(e.g., landfills, sedimentation), chemical (e.g., pollution) or biological
(e.g., introduction of non‑indigenous species) means, constitutes the
most widespread, and frequently irreversible, human impact on the coastal
zone. Coastal development, including
spreading aquaculture, has considerably reduced the area previously covered by
wetlands, marshes and mangroves, with an effect on wildlife communities
inhabiting such areas. Only 30 per cent
of the European coastline may be considered to be free from human
alterations. An estimated 10 per cent
of coral reefs and 40‑50 per cent of the mangrove forests and seagrass
beds have been lost already.
7. Introduction of non-indigenous species
77. The deliberate and accidental introduction of non-indigenous
species is on the increase. The impact
of such introductions ranges from wholesale ecosystem changes, extinction of
indigenous species, human health effects, to more subtle changes in the
composition and the function of indigenous ecosystems. The economic consequences of these invasions
may be considerable. The situation
created by jellyfish introduced in the Black Sea is one of the best documented
examples of the far-reaching - almost catastrophic - ecological and economic
consequences which may accompany the invasion of an alien species in an
environment where natural conditions favour its apparently unlimited population
growth. The decline in the value of
fisheries catches alone was estimated as at least $300 million between the
mid-1980s and the early 1990s.
7. Reduction of marine biodiversity
78. Until recently, it was generally thought that there are fewer
species in the ocean than on the land.
Recent studies of deep seabed communities ‑ previously
considered comparatively devoid of life - have revealed, however,
that they alone may contain more species than occur on land. Localized extinctions of a number of species
through overexploitation or habitat destruction are well known but the alarming
rate at which terrestrial species are becoming extinct is fortunately not
parallelled in marine species.
Consequently, the reduction of marine biodiversity attracts less
attention than terrestrial biodiversity, although it is gradually being
recognized as an important issue.
8.
Particularly vulnerable ecosystems and geographical areas
79. It is recognized that there are certain ecosystems or geographical
areas which are particularly vulnerable or sensitive and, therefore, require
special attention. The most prominent
among these are the small islands, estuaries, coral reefs, seagrass beds,
mangroves, coastal wetlands and spawning and nursery grounds of fish and
crustaceans.
IV.
MAJOR FUTURE ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES AND PRIORITY ISSUES
80. A host of problems, well recognized for decades, continues to
remain on the agenda of environmental and political meetings. The nature and main causes of these problems
are fairly well understood. The
technical, economic, social and political options for their solutions are also
fairly well understood and generally available, at a cost. Nevertheless, owing to the complexity of
these problems and the conflicting interests involved, their effective solution
generally eludes decision-makers and managers, in spite of the growing number
of sectors and sites where substantive improvements have been achieved.
81. The major environmental problems currently besetting the oceans
and coastal areas have been reviewed in the preceding chapter. Some of the sectoral solutions to the
problems identified have also been indicated.
This review has clearly demonstrated that the root causes of most
problems are in land-based activities.
It can be stated, therefore, with full justification, that the impact of
various land-based activities on marine and coastal environment is currently
the single major focus of international attention. The issue is, of course, not new. Concerns about marine pollution and the degradation of coastal
amenities originating from sources on land, about changes made in the coastline,
and about the destruction of coastal habitats, have long been expressed by
scientists and widely acknowledged by policy makers and the general public
alike. Data made available during the
last decade have, however, clearly indicated a general increase in the scale
and type of land‑based activities with deleterious impacts on the marine
and coastal environment, both in the vicinity of major activities and at
locations far removed from such activities.
82. Coastal urbanization, industrial development, drainage basin
modifications, commerce and transport, tourism, agriculture, forestry and
aquaculture are among the most important activities affecting the marine and
coastal environment. Their impacts
cannot generally be conclusively ascribed to individual sources or activities. In most cases, the impacts result from the
cumulative effects of a variety of activities whose individual contributions
vary from site to site and cannot always be traced to their origin with great
certainty. Nevertheless, the nature and
consequences of specific categories of land‑based activities can be described
in qualitative, and sometimes quantitative, terms.
83. Owing to the complex nature of the impact of land based
activities, and the pervasiveness of economic externalities dominating the
environmental aspects of these activities, solutions to their associated
environmental problems cannot be found through the conventional sectoral
approach to resource management. Today
it is generally recognized that that approach must be replaced by a
cross-sectoral, or holistic, integrated coastal area management (ICAM),
encompassing all coastal (terrestrial and maritime) activities and extending
also to the catchment areas of their associated river‑basins and the
underlying groundwater systems.
84. While ICAM is conceptually simple, its implementation is
difficult. The setting of goals and
objectives calling for reconciliation of different interest may frequently
result in some interests being required to forgo economic or other benefits, in
order for other groups to benefit from a specific resource or resources. Consequently, ICAM is essentially and
primarily a political process in which goals and objectives, and the policies
to meet these objectives, need to be determined by those with political
constituencies.
85. Aside from the sectoral approach which still largely prevails in
coastal zone management, a major conceptual problem is nested in lack of proper
understanding that ICAM must also include management of river basins associated
with coastal zones. In spite of their
obvious ecological, economic and social interdependence, the need for adopting
drainage basins as units of ICAM is still not appreciated adequately, although
several key factors strongly militate against the treatment of coastal zones
and river basins as independently manageable entities. Widespread hydrological modifications, such
as the diversion of watercourses, construction of impoundments and barriers and
irrigation schemes, interfere with the dynamic balance of coastal zone,
encourage coastal erosion and wetland loss, modify coastal ecosystems dependent
on nutrient inflow, and impair the life‑cycle and reproduction of fish
migrating between marine and freshwater environments, such as salmon.
86. The need to include groundwater in ICAM is generally ignored,
although groundwater has an important bearing on the hydrological regimes of
drainage basins, as well as on human health (pollution) and well-being (water
supply).
87. The obstacles to be overcome in order to adopt responsible
policies related to ICAM are numerous.
They include the unwillingness to alienate certain economic or political
interests; the lack of understanding of how to implement such policies; the
reluctance to modify existing institutional arrangements; the mistaken
perception that such policies cannot be afforded; the lack of understanding of
the economic value of coastal and marine resources which takes into account
their ecological functions; and the absence of constituencies appreciating
sustainable management of coastal and marine areas.
88. Aside from the listed obstacles of a political nature, the
effectiveness of ICAM may be constrained in many countries by the
scarcity ‑ or total lack - of funding, both for capital
projects and for the initiation of certain activities, or of relevant
managerial or technical skills. The
importance of these constraints cannot be underestimated.
89. Weaknesses in fisheries management are among major persistent
problems (reviewed in the preceding chapter) that must be solved in order to
ensure the ecological, economic and social sustainability of fisheries. Solutions should be sought primarily through
a reduction of over-capacities in fisheries and a reduction of the by-catch, in
particular of endangered species.
90. As a result of an improved insight into certain perennial
problems, or in the light of recent or foreseeable developments, several issues
have been identified during the last decade as requiring closer attention.
91. Increased efforts should be devoted to clarify the potential
effects of substances which may affect the composition and functioning of
coastal and marine ecosystems and populations of organisms (e.g., population
behaviour and reproductive effects), or influence molecular level processes
(e.g., carcinogenesis, mutagenesis, teratogenesis and disruption of endocrine
functions). Although the evidence for
the effects ascribed to the currently occurring concentration of such substance
in the marine and coastal environment is in most cases inconclusive, there are
indications that these effects may indeed exist and could have potentially
adverse effects, including on human health through the consumption of
seafood. Substances of particular
concern are those released from aquaculture and chemicals that affect endocrine
systems and functions (endocrine disruptors).
92. By virtue of their nature, there is a continuing accumulation of
persistent organic compounds in deep-sea sediments which act as their ultimate
repository. Concerns have been
expressed about the potential effects of long-term exposure of bottom-dwelling
organisms and ecosystems to these compounds.
Effects may include both acute and chronic toxicity, mutagenicity and
teratogenicity.
93. Aside from health risks which may be associated with direct or
indirect exposure to marine contaminants, changing global conditions may cause
the emergence or re‑emergence of certain infectious diseases. Increases in sea‑surface temperatures
and sea‑level could lead to a higher incidence of water-borne infectious
and toxin-related illnesses, such as cholera and shellfish poisoning. Human susceptibility to infectious diseases
might be further aggravated by malnutrition due to climate stress on fisheries
production, and potential alteration in the human immune system caused by the
increasing flux of ultraviolet radiation.
94. The possible use of the oceans as a repository for carbon dioxide
is gaining advocates. Injecting carbon
dioxide generated by the combustion of fossil fuels directly into the deep
ocean and thus short-circuiting its gradual absorption from the atmosphere into
the ocean, is considered as an option.
Aside from technical, economic and legal problems, however, there are
serious gaps in our understanding of the relevant natural biological,
geochemical and physical processes, and of the biological effects that may be
expected in the vicinity of release areas.
95. There have been suggestions that the oceanic uptake of carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere, and possibly increased fish production could be
enhanced by the artificial fertilization of large areas of naturally low
productivity to stimulate phytoplankton production. The present state of knowledge is inadequate to predict how such
deliberate large‑scale eutrophication would impact on marine and coastal
ecosystems.
96. Drilling for oil and gas has, in the past, been largely restricted
to shallow nearshore and continental shelf areas. Recent technological developments have now made possible the
exploration and exploitation of oil and gas deposits in increasingly deeper waters,
currently down to about 2000 metres.
Drilling in deep waters brings with it a number of increasingly serious
hazards, also associated with drilling in shallow waters. Contamination from such drilling, including
from the release of gas and oil, could affect large offshore areas and a
deepwater blowout could be difficult to control quickly and efficiently. It would thus be very difficult to reduce
the environmental effects, which may assume near‑catastrophic
proportions.
97. The exploitation of gas hydrates deposits found in deep oceans is
a likely development in the decades to come.
Producing gas hydrates would result in environmentally clean fuel (in
comparison with oil or coal) but may lead to release of methane, which has a
very strong greenhouse effect.
98. Improved technologies and changes in market value of minerals may
trigger the large‑scale extraction of certain minerals from the deep-sea
floor, such as manganese nodules. This,
in turn, could cause the extensive degradation of bottom ecosystems through
direct physical disturbance, the resuspension of sediments and the discharge of
pollutants from mining equipment.
99. Fishing in deeper waters is increasing, with the search for new
stocks. Fishing in depths below 500 m
for long-lived and slow-growing top predators of continental slope ecosystems
(e.g., the orange roughy) is becoming more common and is leading to a rapid
depletion of stocks. In deep-sea
trawling, there is a particular concern with the possible effect on deep‑sea
ecosystems which recover very slowly when disturbed. This concern stems from the level of depletion of biomass which
is caused, not only by the removal of commercially valuable fish, but also by
the by-catch, which may amount to more than half of the total catch.
100. Recent studies indicate an increase in coral diseases caused, in
many parts of the world, by microbial and multicellular organisms. The factors contributing to the
susceptibility of corals to such diseases, and to the loss of their pigments
(the so-called "coral bleaching"), would have to be determined in
order to prevent further deterioration of coral reefs.
101. Biological damage generally increases exponentially with decreasing
wavelength within the UV-B radiation band.
Consequently, small decreases in stratospheric ozone translate into
rather large increases in biologically damaging radiation. More research is needed to assess the
potential impact of increases in UV-B radiation on photosynthesis (i.e., phytoplankton
productivity), as well as on the growth and reproduction of several marine
species which, at least during part of their life-cycle, stay in near-surface
waters.
102. Advances in modern molecular biology, genetics and genetic
engineering have made it possible to alter the genetic structures of marine
organisms. This progress in science and
technology is expected to have a growing influence on marine aquaculture
through the creation of fast‑growing and disease‑resistant strains
of macroalgae, invertebrates and fish.
The possible effects of accidentally or intentionally introduced
genetically altered organisms on the gene pools, survival and overall health of
wild populations of cultured species is causing some concern.
103. The market demand for certain marine products, such as reef-building
and precious corals, shells, live reef fish and shark fin, is on the increase,
stimulated by the trade in special marine products. In many places this is leading to severe overfishing and the
serious destruction of habitats by, for instance, the excessive removal of
corals for the curio trade and physical damage to the reef structure inflicted
in the collection of live reef fish.
104. The predicted overall global warming of the Earth at a rate
unprecedented in geological history is probably the most widely recognized
issue associated with global change of the marine and coastal environment. Evidence is mounting that the world's
climate is already changing, owing to the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere. The most recent assessments
suggest that, by the year 2100, the Earth could be warmer by up to 3.5 C,
unless preventive measures are taken.
By the same year, the average sea‑level is expected to rise by
15-95 cm, with 50 cm as the most probable figure. The main effects of these changes on marine and coastal
environment may include the following:
(a) Alterations in the flow of major ocean
current systems, which may modify the distribution and composition of marine
ecosystems with far‑reaching ecological and economic consequences. The links between fish abundance and
distribution, and climate‑related changes in oceanic conditions (e.g., El
Niņa, the advance of Atlantic waters into the south‑east Atlantic and the
reduction in salinity of the Baltic Sea) are today fully recognized;
(b) Diminution of the polar ice cover, which,
coupled with stratospheric ozone depletion, may lead to major alterations in
the spectral characteristics and intensity of incident light, which, in turn,
may affect the timing and abundance of primary production;
(c) An increase in the number and intensity of
extreme events, such as droughts, floods and hurricanes, whose consequences for
marine and coastal natural and man‑made systems may be considerable
(i.e., damage to near‑shore‑and intertidal ecosystems, coastal
installations, defence systems and harbours);
(d) Sea-level rise, mainly due to warming of the
oceans, which will lead to the loss of low‑lying coastal areas, and
changes in wave regimes and patterns of coastal erosion. These will certainly affect coastal
populations, settlements, industries, infrastructures, ecosystems and
habitats. Flooding of sewerage systems,
coastal industrial and power‑generating plants will increase the risk of
direct pollution.
105. Finding adequate responses to the environmental, social, economic
and cultural impacts of the effects described above will, in the long term, be
a major challenge facing the natural and human marine and coastal environment.
V.
PROPOSALS FOR FUTURE UNEP ACTIONS TO ADDRESS THE
ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES OF
CHAPTER 17
106. UNEP will strengthen the regional seas programme as its central
mechanism for implementation of UNEP activities relevant to chapter 17, with a
focus on the promotion of normative (i.e. policy-relevant) activities and
implementation, in cooperation with Governments, intergovernmental,
international and non-governmental organizations. In the framework of this programme, UNEP will promote the
implementation of activities identified in six programme areas of chapter 17,
specifically:
(a) Integrated management and sustainable
development of coastal areas, by:
(i) Advancing
the integrated management and sustainable development of coastal areas and
associated river-basins as the overarching principle governing the activities
of the programme;
(ii) Promoting
the establishment of regional commissions for sustainable development;
(iii) Encouraging
the reassessment of priorities within the regional components of the programme,
with a view to ensuring that integrated management and sustainable development
are their central issues;
(iv) Developing
and testing guidelines for the environmentally sustainable management and use
of coastal and marine resources, particularly through ICAM, based on drainage
basin management units;
(v) Assisting
countries in the development and strengthening of their institutional
structures, legal instruments and manpower capacities needed for ICAM; and
(vi) Facilitating
access to, and the transfer of, environmentally sound technologies;
(b) Marine environment protection, by:
(i) Promoting
the formulation, adoption and implementation of appropriate technical,
administrative and legal measures contributing to improved protection of the
marine and coastal environment, including the rational use and conservation of
their resources;
(ii) Facilitating and guiding, on a
continuous basis, the assessment of the state of marine and coastal
environment, including the trends of changes in this environment;
(iii) Fostering
measures to minimize or prevent degradation of the marine environment from land‑based
and sea‑based activities;
(c) Sustainable use and conservation of marine
living resources under national jurisdiction, by:
(i) Promoting
measures for improved protection of endangered species, fragile ecosystems,
habitats and other ecologically sensitive areas, and for restoration of damaged
systems and areas;
(ii) Pursuing
the establishment of new, and the expansion of existing, specially protected
areas;
(iii) Fostering
closer cooperation between the programme and mechanisms and bodies dealing with
fisheries, including aquaculture;
(iv) Exploring
the possibilities of integrating fisheries-related issues into the programme;
(d) Addressing critical uncertainties for the
management of the marine environment and climate change, by strengthening and
expanding the ongoing research, monitoring and observation activities
undertaken in the framework of the programme;
(e) International, including regional,
cooperation and coordination, by:
(i) Acting
as a clearing‑house for the collection and exchange of information
relevant to the activities pursued under the programme;
(ii) Convening,
on a regular basis, periodic meetings of secretariats of the regional
components of the programme, including those not directly coordinated by UNEP,
and representatives of organizations supporting the programme, to discuss and
determine areas of possible cooperation;
(iii) Coordinating
activities jointly undertaken by the regional components of the programme;
(iv) Ensuring
that the programme is developing in harmony with relevant global programmes,
legally non-binding agreements and conventions, particularly those for which
UNEP acts as the secretariat;
(v) Fostering
increased cooperation with, and the active involvement of, international and
intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations in the programme;
(vi) Preparing
and convening, possibly in 2000, a joint high‑level meeting of the
representatives of the governing bodies (e.g., parties to the conventions) of
the regional components of the programme, to review overall progress in the
programme and to determine ways and means of enhancing its contribution to the
global protection of the marine and coastal environment through regional and
interregional cooperation;
(f) Sustainable development of small islands, by
pursuing the specific goals of the Programme of Action for the Sustainable
Development of Small Island Developing States in all appropriate regions
covered by the regional seas programmes.
107. UNEP will also explore the need and possibility for expansion of
the regional seas programme to geographical areas currently not covered.
108. In addition, in order to further the principles and goals of
chapter 17, UNEP will continue contributing to the implementation of
Agenda 21 through the following:
(a) Ongoing UNEP programme elements and
activities, such as GEMS, GRID and INFOTERRA;
(b) Programmes for which UNEP acts as
secretariat, coordinator or lead agency, such as Earthwatch, the Global Plan of
Action for the Conservation, Protection and Utilization of Marine Mammals and
the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment
from Land‑based Activities;
(c) GEF, by pursuing the development of projects
contributing to improved management of the marine and coastal environment, and
by coordinating the implementation of GEF-supported projects for which UNEP has
assumed direct responsibility, such as the Global International Waters
Assessment;