30 November 1998
ORIGINAL: ENGLISH
EP Governing Council of the United Nations Environment Programme UNITED NATIONS Twentieth session
Nairobi,
1-5 February 1999
Item 8 of the provisional agenda*
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PREPARATIONS
FOR THE SEVENTH SESSION OF THE
COMMISSION
ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Contribution of the United Nations
Environment Programme: Activities
of the United Nations
Environment Programme regarding
small island
developing States
Report of the
Executive Director
Summary
In
its decision SS.V/3 of 22 May 1998, the Governing Council requested the
Executive Director to consult with Member States, particularly developing
countries, both individually and in regional and subregional groupings, on
environmental aspects of oceans' management, including the problems of the
sustainable development of small island developing States, and sustainable
tourism, and, on the basis of those consultations, to prepare reports for the
Governing Council at its twentieth session, with a view to submitting the
reports as a contribution to the work of the Commission on Sustainable
Development at its seventh session. The
present report and the reports on oceans management and sustainable tourism,
contained the addenda to this document, are prepared pursuant to that decision.
The present report is also prepared
pursuant to Governing Council decision 19/18, of 7 February 1997, which
requested the Executive Director to report on the steps taken to implement the
Barbados Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island
Developing States to the body responsible for the review of the implementation
of the Programme of Action to be held in 1999 and also to report on progress in
that area to the Governing Council at its twentieth session. In addition, the report takes into account
the views of the High-level Committee of Ministers and Officials at its third
meeting, held in Buenos Aires on 10 November 1998, and it is submitted for
consideration by the Governing Council as a major UNEP contribution to the
seventh session of the Commission on Sustainable Development.
Suggested action by the Governing Council
The
Governing Council may wish to:
Authorize
the Executive Director to finalize the report on implementation of the Barbados
Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing
States, on the basis of the draft report contained in the annex to the report
of the Executive Director [1]/ and the comments made at the
Council thereon, and to transmit it to the Commission on Sustainable
Development at its seventh session.
BACKGROUND
1. By
its decision 19/18 of 7 February 1997, the Governing Council urged the
Executive Director to take all appropriate measures to implement within
available resources the Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of
Small Island Developing States. It also
requested the Executive Director to report on the steps taken to implement the
Barbados Programme of Action to the body responsible for the review of the
implementation of that Plan of Action to be held in 1999, as well as to report
on progress achieved at the twentieth session of the Governing Council.
2. By
its decision SS.V/3 of 22 May 1998, the Governing Council also requested the
Executive Director to consult with Member States on the environmental aspects
of oceans management, including the problems of the sustainable development of
small island developing States, and sustainable tourism, and, on the basis of
these consultations, to prepare reports for the consideration of the High-level
Committee of Ministers and Officials and the Governing Council at its twentieth
session, with a view to submitting the reports as a contribution to the work of
the Commission on Sustainable Development at its seventh session.
3. An
earlier, abridged draft of the report was submitted for consideration to the
High-Level Committee of Ministers and Officials at its third meeting. The Committee endorsed the contribution of
UNEP on this matter to the Commission on Sustainable Development at its seventh
session. The present draft of the
report, as contained in the annex, takes into account the views expressed by
the Committee.
4. In
response to those requests, UNEP has prepared a draft report on implementation
of the Barbados Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small
Island Developing States, for consideration by the Governing Council. The draft report, contained in the annex to
the present report, highlights the environmental aspects of the Barbados
Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing
States, as well as the state of the environment and trends since the adoption
of the Programme of Action. It also
identifies past and current actions by UNEP to facilitate implementation of the
Programme of Action, as well as major future challenges for small island
developing States and proposals for appropriate UNEP action to address those
challenges. The draft report constitutes
a major contribution of UNEP to the seventh session of the Commission on
Sustainable Development. It will be
revised as appropriate prior to the seventh session of the Commission, taking
fully into account comments received at the third meeting of the High-Level
Committee of Ministers and Officials of UNEP and the twentieth session of the
Governing Council.
Annex
DRAFT REPORT ON IMPLEMENTATION OF THE
BARBADOS PROGRAMME OF ACTION
FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL
ISLAND DEVELOPING STATES
Contents
Paragraphs Page
I. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE
BARBADOS
PROGRAMME
OF ACTION FOR THE SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
OF SMALL ISLAND DEVELOPING
STATES................................................. 1 - 9
4
II. PAST AND PRESENT ACTIONS
BY UNEP TO
FACILITATE
THE ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS
OF
THE BARBADOS PROGRAMME OF ACTION.................... 10 - 20
6
A. Legislative authority............................ 10 6
B. Focus of UNEP activities......................... 11 - 19
6
C. Sources of financial and human
resources
for implementing the
environmental
aspects of Barbados
Programme
of Action.............................. 20 10
III. STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND TRENDS
SINCE
THE ADOPTION OF THE BARBADOS
PROGRAMME
OF ACTION.................................... 21 - 33 10
IV. MAJOR FUTURE
ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES
FOR
SMALL ISLAND DEVELOPING STATES .................... 34 - 51 12
V. PROPOSALS FOR FUTURE UNEP
ACTIONS TO
ADDRESS
THE ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES
FACING
SMALL ISLAND DEVELOPING STATES ................. 52 - 53 16
I. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE
BARBADOS PROGRAMME OF ACTION FOR THE
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL
ISLAND DEVELOPING STATES
1. The
need to pay special attention to the environmental and economic problems
hindering the sustainable development of small islands was explicitly
recognized by the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held
in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 - the Earth Summit.
Chapter 17 of the Programme of Action for Sustainable Development
(Agenda 21), adopted at Rio, identifies it as one of the programme areas where
new approaches for management and development at the national, subregional,
regional and global levels are required.
2. Recognizing
that the difficulties of small island developing States cannot be effectively
solved by individual island States and without active international cooperation
and assistance, the Earth Summit recommended the convening of a conference to
consider the specific problems of small island developing States and to design
a comprehensive programme for the solution of these problems.
3. This
call for action was followed by the preparation and convening of the Global
Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island States, held at
Bridgetown, Barbados, in 1994, to promote focused and sustained action at the
national, regional and international levels.
The Conference adopted the Programme of Action for the Sustainable
Development of Small Island Developing States and identified 15 priority areas
in which the Programme should be implemented:
(a) Climate change and sea-level rise;
(b) Natural and environmental disasters;
(c) Management of wastes;
(d) Coastal and marine resources;
(e) Freshwater resources;
(f) Land resources;
(g) Energy resources;
(h) Tourism resources;
(i) Biodiversity resources;
(j) National institutions and administrative
capacity;
(k) Regional institutions and technical
cooperation;
(l) Transport and communication;
(m) Science and technology;
(n) Human resource development;
(o) Implementation, monitoring and review.
4. The
focus of the Programme of Action is on actions promoting sustainable
development, with the recognition that frequently stressful environmental
conditions and relatively narrow resource bases are among the main factors
limiting the development options of small island developing States and
jeopardizing their rich and diverse cultural heritage. Accordingly, their continuing development
will critically depend on, first, the full exploitation of the comparative
advantages offered by their unique terrestrial and marine resources, including
their rich biodiversity, and, second, their effective adaptation to global
environmental change.
5. The
protection and development of small island developing States and other small
islands in many respects share the problems apparent in the protection of
marine and coastal environment elsewhere.
There are certain characteristics peculiar to their situation, however,
which require specific approaches if sustainable development is to be ensured.
6. In
most cases the small size of these States precludes greater variability and
abundance of terrestrial living and non-living resources and the development of
economies on a scale which could be competitive at the international level. In addition, their geographical dispersion
and isolation from markets of other countries render small island developing
States less competitive.
7. The
small size, isolation and relative paucity of resources are not, however, the
only factors causing the environment and social and economic development of
small island developing States to be generally vulnerable. Most small island developing States are
located in geographical areas where they are exposed to periodic hostile
environmental conditions and events, such as, hurricanes, cyclones, tsunamis,
storm surges, volcanic eruptions, landslides and more, which, when they occur,
affect large parts or even the entirety of the islands. The relatively uniform climate and soil
conditions usually limit the agricultural production of the islands to a few
crops, making them heavily dependent on import of other products. The predicted consequences of climate change
will further increase the vulnerability of small island developing States.
8. Although
tourism currently represents a major economic sector, the vastness of the seas
surrounding small island developing States is, in the long term, probably their
major - if not their only - comparative advantage over the continental
countries. The wealth contained in
their exclusive economic zones is considerable, albeit largely
underutilized. It provides small island
developing States with their major source of animal proteins, and the fisheries
and mineral resources of their exclusive economic zones are, at least
potentially, their most important assets of interest to the world market.
9. The
environmental aspects of the issues reviewed above are numerous and are
addressed in the Programme of Action as an integral part of the associated
developmental issues. Moreover, some of
the special environmental problems of small island developing States are also
addressed through existing global and regional agreements and programmes in
which small island developing States participate.
II.
PAST AND PRESENT ACTIONS BY
UNEP TO FACILITATE THE ENVIRONMENTAL
ASPECTS OF THE BARBADOS PROGRAMME
OF ACTION
10. The 1994 Conference which adopted the Barbados Programme of Action
recognized the role of UNEP in providing policy guidance and coordination in
the field of environment, including the implementation of the Programme of
Action. In response to this
recognition, UNEP started mobilizing its programme elements to contribute to
the implementation of the Programme of Action and, in 1996, developed and
adopted an integrated programme to meet the environmental challenges facing
small island developing States. At its
eighteenth and nineteenth sessions, in 1995 and 1997 respectively, the
Governing Council requested the Executive Director to take appropriate action
to implement the Programme of Action, and encouraged UNEP to adopt an
integrated approach in addressing the needs of small island developing
States. In addition, at its fifth
special session, in 1998, the Governing Council requested the Executive
Director to consult with Member States, particularly developing countries, both
individually and in regional and subregional groupings, on environmental
aspects of oceans management, including the problems of the sustainable
development of small island developing States, and, on the basis of those
consultations, to prepare a report for the consideration of the High-level
Committee of Ministers and Officials and the Governing Council at its twentieth
session, with a view to submitting the report as a contribution to the work of
the Commission on Sustainable Development at its seventh session.
11. Wherever appropriate, the problems of small island developing
States are addressed primarily in the broad framework of the relevant regional
components of the regional seas programme.
12. Special attention in the implementation of the Programme of Action
is focused on promoting efficient protection of resources through integrated
island management programmes, including, in most cases, the totality of the
islands' terrestrial environment, their coastline and the adjacent exclusive
economic zones. Thus, in the framework
of the regional seas programme, the totality of several Mediterranean islands
was included in coastal area management programmes and several pilot projects
on integrated coastal area management have been or are being carried out in
Caribbean small island developing States - the Dominican Republic, Saint
Vincent and the Grenadines and Saint Lucia - and in the Comoros.
13. In several regions regional action plans were adopted for the
implementation of the Programme of Action.
They reflect the particular priorities of the small island developing
States involved, as well as their resource capabilities to implement the
adopted plans. They also provide the
general framework in which regional and global organizations and programmes, as
well as bilateral and multilateral donors, are expected to contribute to
implementation of the Programme of Action.
14. National and regional project proposals are under preparation,
with a view to their submission for consideration by a meeting of donors,
planned to be arranged by the Department of Economic and Social Affairs, in
cooperation with UNEP, in February 1999.
Several national project proposals and a regional proposal, based on a
waste management strategy formulated by the Indian Ocean small island
developing States, have already been completed. The preparation of additional national proposals, as well as a
regional project proposal, is under way for the Indian Ocean, Mediterranean and
Atlantic Ocean small island developing States.
A forum for small island developing States in the Indian Ocean, Atlantic
Ocean and Mediterranean Sea is being organized, for November 1998, in
cooperation between UNEP, the Island and Small States Institute of Malta and
the Government of Malta, to finalize these project proposals.
15. Assistance is being provided by UNEP to small island developing
States in preparation of their regional position papers for submission to the
Commission on Sustainable Development at its seventh session. The preparation of two position papers is
under way: one for the South Pacific
with assistance provided by New Zealand, and another for the Indian Ocean,
Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean with assistance from the Government of
Malta. Both position papers will be
adopted by regional ministerial-level meetings before their submission to the
Commission. The preparation of a
similar input to the seventh session of the Commission on Sustainable Development
is planned for the Caribbean small island developing States, with assistance
from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
16. The application of island systems management, developed by the
Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS), was promoted through the
Island V Conference held in Mauritius in 1998.
17. UNEP is contributing to the formulation of a vulnerability index,
designed to assess the ecological and economic fragility of small island
developing States. The index is
expected to reflect the constraints arising from the small size and
environmental fragility of small island developing States, as well as the
incidence of natural disasters, and the consequent constraints to economic
development. The Government of Malta
offered to host the centre for the computation of the index on an ongoing
basis.
18. In cooperation with the European Commission, UNEP is preparing
joint European Union/UNEP state-of-the-environment assessments for the small
island developing States covered by the Lomé Convention, in order to help
identify regional environmental concerns, priorities and policies of relevance
to the Lomé 2000 negotiations of the European Union.
19. In addition to the activities listed above, UNEP also contributed
to the implementation of the following specific priority areas identified in
the Barbados Programme of Action:
(a) Climate change and sea-level rise: Using the regional seas programme, in which
small island developing States participate, regional assessments of the
environmental and social and economic impacts of climate change and sea-level
rise were prepared. As a follow-up,
several similar site-specific assessments were prepared in the small island
developing States of the Mediterranean and Caribbean regions (e.g., Malta and
Saint Lucia). The Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Technical Guidelines for Assessing Climate
Change Impacts and Adaptations were used in preparing assessments for two small
island developing States: Cuba and
Antigua and Barbuda. Haiti, Mauritius
and Niue are included in a UNEP project, supported by the Global Environment
Facility (GEF) aiming at national capacity-building, defining options for
response strategies, and implementing adaptation measures and response
strategies;
(b) Management of wastes: Several small island developing States were
assisted through training of their technicians and managers in the development
of their national and regional waste management strategies and practices. In late 1996, a regional training workshop
was organized in the framework of the regional seas programme on that subject
for Caribbean small island developing States, with the participation of
managers from two small island developing States from other regions (Cape Verde
and Fiji). A similar workshop was
organized, in late 1997, on waste management in small island developing States
in the Indian Ocean region. A waste
management strategy was formulated for the Indian Ocean small island developing
States at that workshop. Guidelines for
municipal solid waste management in small island developing States in the South
Pacific region are being finalized and will be tested in the near future. Assistance in the management of wastes from
land‑based sources was provided in 1998 to Trinidad and Tobago;
(c) Coastal and marine resources: Support is being provided for the
subregional and regional cooperation of small island developing States in
promoting the protection, restoration and sustainable use of coral reefs and
associated ecosystems. In the framework
of the International Coral Reef Initiative, a regional workshop was held in
Seychelles, in 1996, to develop the basis for a strategy and action plan for
the conservation and management of coral reefs in the eastern African region. A report entitled "Reefs at risk"
was published in cooperation with the World Conservation Monitoring Centre
(WCMC), the International American Center for Living Aquatic Resources
Management (ICLARM) and the World Resources Institute (WRI). A proposal was prepared for the
establishment of the International Coral Reef Action Network in the framework
of relevant parts of the regional seas programme;
(d) Freshwater resources: This problem was approached through an
integrated approach to the management of oceans, coastal waters and
freshwater. Specific UNEP activities
included: capacity-building through
workshops, training courses and individual training; improving access to
environmentally sound technologies promoting efficient use of freshwater
resources; and implementation of the Global Programme of Action for the
Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities. A workshop on the integrated management of
freshwater, coastal and marine resources in small island developing States was
held in December 1997; training was provided for managers in Mediterranean
small island developing States in the framework of the regional seas programme;
and a Source Book on Technologies for Augmenting Freshwater Resources in Small
Island States was prepared and issued;
(e) Tourism:
Using methodology developed by UNEP, the impact of tourism in small
island developing States is being assessed.
In cooperation with the World Tourism Organization, a conference was
organized on tourism in small island States and other islands, in Lanzarote,
Canary Islands, Spain, in late 1998.
Both conferences were convened to review the tourism-related problems of
small island developing States and to promote environmentally sound approaches
to the development of tourism. With the
assistance provided by United States Agency for International Development
(USAID), pilot projects are being carried out in several Caribbean small island
developing States (Barbados, Jamaica and Saint Lucia) on assessment of the
impacts of tourism and application of best management practices. A training course on their siting and design
of tourist facilities was held in Tobago, in 1998;
(f) Biodiversity resources: Within the overall framework of the
Convention on Biological Diversity, through its technical advisory services,
UNEP is assisting a number of small island developing States in the formulation
and implementation of their national biodiversity policies, strategies and
action plans. A GEF-funded regional
project implemented in 15 small island developing States in the framework of
the South Pacific component of the regional seas programme aims to protect
their biodiversity by facilitating the establishment of conservation areas,
with agreed criteria for development based on long‑term ecological
sustainability. To date, the project
has identified 17 conservation areas which are at various stages of planning,
establishment and implementation.
Biodiversity-related projects (biodiversity country studies,
biodiversity data management, national biosafety frameworks and the development
of national biodiversity strategies and action plans) have been also carried
out through GEF-funded UNEP projects in the Bahamas, Barbados, Cuba, Mauritius,
Seychelles, the Solomon Islands, Saint Lucia and Vanuatu;
(g) National institutions and administrative
capacity: Recognizing that, in most
small island developing States, the national capacities needed for the
implementation of the Programme of Action are inadequate, UNEP continued, through
meetings, training courses and its regional advisory services programme, to
provide training of national experts, thus enhancing the technical and
managerial capacities of small island developing States for environmental
management. A workshop on implementation
of the Convention on Biological Diversity and a training seminar in
environmental law for African lusophone countries were held in Maputo, in 1997,
with participants from several African small island developing States. A workshop on the implementation of
international conventions, including the Convention on Biological Diversity,
was held in Maldives, in 1997, for small island developing States in the South
Asia Cooperative Environment Programme (SACEP) region. Assistance in the development of national
environmental legislation and policy was or is being provided to Barbados, Cape
Verde, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Fiji, Jamaica, Kiribati, Maldives, Mauritius,
Samoa, Sao Tome and Principe, Seychelles, Singapore, Saint Kitts and Nevis,
Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago and Tuvalu;
(h) Science and technology: An assessment of the state of the
environment in small island developing States is under way. In order to promote exchange of information
and experience, participants from small island developing States were included
in relevant workshops and conferences organized by UNEP, and an island website
was created to facilitate access to information about small island developing
States. Transfer of technology was also
promoted by exchange of information and experience through the network of cleaner
production centres operated by UNEP, encompassing Fiji, Malta, Maldives, Samoa
and several Caribbean States;
(i) Implementation monitoring and review: UNEP monitors and reviews the implementation
the Programme of Action on a continuous basis and prepares reports on the
status and progress in its implementation.
As the designated task manager for the Commission's reports on climate
change and sea-level rise, waste management and biological resources, inputs on
small island developing States were prepared by UNEP for consideration by the
Commission on Sustainable Development at its sixth session.
C.
Sources of financial
and human resources for implementing the
environmental aspects of Barbados
Programme of Action
20. The financial and human resources provided from the UNEP
Environment Fund for activities related to small island developing States are
relatively small. Consequently, UNEP
relies heavily on external sources of funding.
GEF remains one of the major potential sources of such funds. Other sources include trust funds operated
under the regional seas programme, direct support of certain activities by
Governments, such as the support provided by Malta, New Zealand and the United
Kingdom for the preparation of small island developing States position papers
for the Commission on Sustainable Development at its seventh session, and
organizations interested in the joint implementation of specific
activities. An example of the latter is
the cooperation with the European Commission on the preparation of a joint,
European Union/UNEP state‑of‑the‑environment report for small
island developing States participating in the Lomé Convention, for which the
Commission has provided funding to the tune of $567,000.
III.
STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND
TRENDS SINCE THE ADOPTION OF THE
BARBADOS PROGRAMME OF ACTION
21. There are 36 small island developing States and five dependent
territories in the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS). The total population of the AOSIS countries
is about 29 million.
22. Most small island developing States are located within the tropics
and range in size from aggregations of scattered atolls to relatively large
land masses. Atoll States are
particularly vulnerable: in most cases
they are small, low‑lying, sandy and infertile, densely populated and
poorly endowed with resources and opportunities for land-based
development. Most small island
developing States are characterized by high rate of population growth relative
to their carrying capacity; a physically fragile environment; a high dependence
on foreign development assistance; a high level of urban unemployment and rural
under-employment; extremely vulnerable and undiversified economies; and, in
some cases, substantial rates of outward population migration resulting in
critical losses of skills to the economy.
23. In all small island developing States the ratio between the
surface area of their exclusive economic zones and their land mass is
disproportionately large. Fisheries
play a critical role in the lives and economy of island communities, providing
a basic and vital source of food, employment where commercial production is possible,
and national income from the sale of fishing rights (in the form of access
fees) and exports of fish and fishery products (export taxes). According to the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the per capita consumption of fish in
many small island developing States exceeds 50 kg per year, and in one case is
as high as 133 kg, compared with an annual average consumption rate of 9 kg in
developing and 27 kg in developed countries.
24. Small island developing States are known for their rich
biodiversity and the high degree of endemism of their species. There are more than 4,000 species of plants
and animals that are found only in small island developing States. Owing to the small size of many small island
developing States and the endemic nature of many species, the biological
diversity of small islands is extremely fragile. Any change in environmental conditions, including the
introduction of alien species, is likely to have an adverse impact on a high
proportion - if not all - of their habitats and species. In the case of endemic species, this
frequently results in extinction, causing irreversible loss of genetic
resources. Approximately 75 per cent of
the documented animal extinctions since 1600 have occurred on non-continental
islands and another 3,000 species are known to be threatened. The ecosystems of small island developing
States provide "ecological corridors", linking major areas of
biological diversity around the world.
Maintaining the biological diversity of small island developing States
is, therefore, globally important and merits particular attention.
25. In many small island developing States deforestation and forest
degradation are on the increase. These
trends have led to the extinction of numerous animal and plant species, the
greater exposure of the islands to the impacts of strong winds, considerable
soil erosion, the depletion of wildlife and the increased incidence and
severity of floods and landslides. In
the case of the loss of mangroves, critical spawning habitats for inshore
fisheries are also lost and the dynamic interaction of coastal systems, such as
coral reefs, intertidal ecosystems, severely affected through the resulting
coastal erosion.
26. Traditional subsistence agriculture remains dominant in small
island developing States, particularly on smaller islands. In principle, it is environmentally
friendly, albeit characterized by low productivity. Under population and economic pressures, however, traditional
systems, such as fallow rotation, are being replaced by more intensive
exploitation, such as monocultures, excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides
and intensive livestock production, which, in many places, is unsustainable
because of the prevailing soil and environmental conditions.
27. The modification of coastal and marine ecosystems is of particular
concern. Ecologically important coastal
habitats, such as wetlands, estuaries and lagoons, are increasingly being
reduced by land-reclamation schemes, unsustainable exploitation and the
development of aquaculture. The
degradation and loss of coral reefs is widespread. A number of factors contribute to this trend, such as removal for
construction purposes, for, inter alia, dwellings, roads and airports,
unsound fishing practices, including heavy and indiscriminate dredging and
fishing with explosives, pollution and increased siltation, due to increased
soil erosion. The spread of coral
bleaching observed over the last five years is probably the first larger-scale
ecological effect which may be attributed to global climate change. Once extensive seagrass beds are now
shrinking in size in consequence of the physical disturbance and pollution to
which they are exposed.
28. The decline and loss of some fisheries resources, both in coastal
waters and the adjacent exclusive economic zones, is far advanced. Overfishing of stocks or fishing with
inappropriate methods, such as large‑scale pelagic driftnets, are the
main culprits. The problems are
compounded by the lack of means in most small island developing States to control
the foreign fishing fleets illegally operating in their exclusive economic
zones. Coastal fish stocks, a once
abundant and seemingly boundless source of animal proteins in most small island
developing States, are severely depleted.
Inappropriate fishing practices are also leading to large losses in
non-targeted species, such as marine mammals, turtles and birds.
29. Aquaculture in many small island developing States is growing in
importance as a substitute for proteins previously provided by capture fisheries. That growth is accompanied by the growth of
its negative environmental effects:
physical loss of mangroves and natural lagoon ecosystems and habitats,
pollution from foodstuffs and chemicals used to promote the healthy growth of
cultured organisms, and the ecological havoc and economic losses created by
alien species introduced intentionally or unintentionally into the environment.
30. Although some small island developing States have set aside a
considerable part of their territory, including coastal waters, as specially
protected areas (for example, such areas in the Bahamas, Cape Verde and Fiji
cover over 10 per cent of their land areas), in most other small island
developing States the extent of such areas is almost negligible.
31. Aside from some positive developments, in general pollution caused
by human, industrial and agricultural wastes is on the increase in most small
island developing States. Pollution of
scarce freshwater resources and pollution by sewage is of particular
concern.
32. By virtue of their geographical location, small island developing
States are exposed to major natural disasters, frequently of near‑catastrophic
proportions. Their limited capacity to
respond to and recover from such disasters makes their ecosystems and their
social economic fabric particularly vulnerable.
33. The first signs of effects attributable to global change, in the
areas of climate and sea-level, are starting to be discernible. The number of storms is on the increase in
some areas and the observed spreading of coral bleaching may have been
triggered by sea temperature rise.
IV.
MAJOR FUTURE ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES FOR SMALL
ISLAND DEVELOPING STATES
34. While considerable progress has been made in the implementation of
the Programme of Action since it was adopted in 1994, a number of obstacles must
be overcome for it to be more vigorously and efficiently implemented.
35. In many instances, the current national development plans of small
island developing States do not consider their developmental priorities in the
context of the constraints posed by their environmental conditions. A better integration of economic goals and
environmental concerns should therefore be achieved at national levels so as to
ensure the protection and sustainable use of environmental resources.
36. The information base in small island developing States on the
status of their natural resources and on the trends in the changes of these
resources is still generally inadequate.
A continuous assessment of the state of the environment and of the
social and economic forces driving the environmental changes would have to be
strengthened as an indispensable tool in national decision-making processes.
37. The production of wastes from various sources is on the increase
in most small island developing States.
Options for appropriate waste management are constrained by the inherent
natural characteristics of such States, including the shortage of adequate
funding. Pollution by human waste, and
sewage in particular, is ubiquitous and - aside from being an aesthetic
nuisance - represents a common source of infectious diseases. A special problem is posed by pollution from
wastes originating from certain agricultural practices, such as the excessive
use of fertilizers and pesticides, from animal husbandry and, in some small
island developing States, by mining wastes.
38. Tourism, as one of only a very few development options for many
small island developing States, continues to be of growing importance for their
economies. Unfortunately, it is all too
often developing without adequate concern for its long-term and cumulative
environmental and economic impact, which may ultimately lead to the serious
deterioration of environmental quality, the very basis for the development of
attractive tourism. Efforts should be
devoted towards diversifying tourism products, enhancing its quality and
increasingly targeting the upper stratum of the tourist market. Linkages with other economic sectors should
be strengthened in order to satisfy the consumer needs of tourists through
domestic production to the maximum extent possible. The improvement and development of the physical infrastructure of
small island developing States, such as airports, harbours, roads,
telecommunication systems, freshwater supply, and so forth, would be needed for
a more vigorous development of tourism.
39. Most small island developing States do not have sufficient
conventional sources of energy, such as oil or coal. This increases pressure on such limited biological resources as
firewood. The preferred solution to these
problems should not be increasing imports of energy sources, but a more
aggressive development of alternative sources of energy, such as sustainable
fuelwood industry, biogas, solar and wind power, ocean thermal energy
conversion and others.
40. Sea-level rise, and climate change in general, pose a special, and
in the long term, the most serious problem for small island developing States,
particularly the smaller islands and those with low-lying coastal areas. Impacts that may be felt in the near future
are related to increased intensity and frequency of tropical storms and
inundation of low-lying areas, resulting in damage to, or the loss of, coastal
infrastructures, defence systems, habitats and ecosystems, agricultural
production, human settlements and human life.
In the longer term, similar effects may be observed due to the gradual
rise in sea-level. The rise in
temperature may worsen the situation of coral reefs, through coral bleaching,
affect the present vegetation cover and agricultural crops, influence the
distribution of fisheries resources, and affect human health. Whenever possible, solutions to the
predicted impacts should be sought primarily in affordable adaptations,
particularly those which take full
advantage of natural defence systems such as protection of coral reefs and
mangroves, rather than in costly, large‑scale engineering works.
41. Shortage of freshwater is a common characteristic of many small
island developing States and one of the main constraints on their more vigorous
economic and social development. The
conservation of freshwater through improved watershed management would not only
contribute to a sustainable supply of freshwater but also prevent soil erosion
and thus help boost the agricultural potential of small island developing
States.
42. The degradation and loss of terrestrial and coastal ecosystems and
habitats is on the rapid increase in most small island developing States. The main causes are to be found in
inadequate agricultural and fisheries practices, the ill-planned development of
settlements and industries (including tourism), and the unsustainable use of
biological resources. Many ecosystems
and habitats have already been lost irretrievably and further losses and
degradation can be prevented only through radical changes in national
approaches to their protection. Beach
erosion is a particular problem for most small island developing States.
43. The unsustainable use of biological resources is particularly
evident in coastal zones. Coral reefs
are being destroyed by their large-scale use for building material and in
coastal construction work and by inappropriate fishing practices; mangroves are
being removed for firewood and development of aquaculture; wetlands are being
reduced by inappropriate land development schemes; and fisheries resources are
declining as a result of overfishing, frequently conducted by illegally
operating foreign fleets. An improved
assessment of exploitable fish stocks and a better understanding of
transboundary fish migrations would be required as the basis for the
development of national fisheries policies and practices. Aquaculture has great potential in a number
of small island developing States but its development should be carefully
controlled, in order to avoid the negative environmental impacts which are
frequently associated with fish and shrimp farms, including the potential hazards
from the introduction of non-indigenous species.
44. Current trends of trade liberalization and globalization are
bringing new challenges, as well as possible opportunities, for small island
developing States. They would require
certain institutional reforms, the adoption of responsive economic policy
frameworks and human resources, in order to enhance the competitiveness of
small island developing States and their ability to diversify into new
activities. More attention would have
to be paid to prevent trade and traffic in endangered species.
45. Currently, there are two additional factors which are adversely
affecting the implementation of the Programme of Action, both related to
international support for small island developing States. Over the last few years, the actual transfer
of environmentally sound technologies to small island developing States was
generally slow and uneven. This trend
is further aggravated by declining levels of the flow of official development
assistance (ODA) relative to gross national product (GNP), albeit compensated
to a certain degree by some increase in private flows to certain small island
developing States.
46. An intensified and more active participation in various regional
and global agreements and programmes would certainly benefit small island
developing States. It would facilitate
their access to information, expertise and experience available in countries
with problems similar to their own, would broaden the possibilities for
receiving technical and financial assistance needed for furthering the goals of
the Programme of Action, and would provide the mechanisms for coordinating
specific activities under the Programme of Action at global and regional
levels. Such cooperation would be of
benefit not only to small island developing States. The protection of the environment of small island developing
States, and of their unique ecosystems and rich biodiversity, is of global
importance and in the interest of all countries.
47. The relevant regional seas programmes, particularly those covering
the South Pacific and the Caribbean and supported by the Noumea and Cartagena
conventions, offer a logical legal and organizational framework for the
regionally coordinated implementation of the Programme of Action. Similarly, accession to global agreements
and participation in global programmes may advance considerably the cause of
small island developing States. Global
agreements and programmes of particular relevance to the Programme of Action
include: the United Nations Convention
on the Law of the Sea, the Convention on Biological Diversity, the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Basel Convention on the
Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, the
Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from
Land-based Activities, the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, the
Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the
Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish
Stocks, the Protocol to the London Convention on the Prevention of Marine
Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, the Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), the Convention for
the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, the International Coral
Reef Initiative (ICRI), the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) and the
International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP).
48. Nearly all global agreements and programmes recognize the special
status and needs of small island developing States and accord them due
attention. For instance, the Jakarta
Mandate on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine and Coastal
Biological Diversity (adopted in November 1995 by decision II/10 of the
Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity)
specifically refers to the importance of small islands' biological diversity and
to actions required to improve the status of that diversity.
49. The special problems and requirements of small island developing
States are also recognized by GEF in three of its four concentration
areas: protection of biological
diversity, mitigation of climate change impacts, and protection of
international waters. In view of the
chronic shortage of funds in small island developing States for environmental
protection, GEF may be seen as a major source of funds for projects designed
for the protection of their environment and for the promotion of their
sustainable social and economic development.
50. Global, regional and, in particular, national non-governmental
organizations already play an important role in the implementation of the
Programme of Action, by promoting the environmental principles and concepts on
which it is founded. That
notwithstanding, their more active involvement at project implementation level
should be promoted, as they are uniquely suited to deal with small-scale
projects.
51. The implementation of the environmental aspects of the Programme
of Action suffers from a number of shortcomings which also constrain the
implementation of the Programme of Action as a whole. Most important among these are the following: inadequate coordination between the
organizations and agencies supporting the Programme of Action; weak
coordination at national levels; deficiencies in the capacity to implement the
Programme of Action at national levels; the failure, in most countries, to
integrate the Programme of Action into national development plans; the lack of
provisions for monitoring the state of the environment and trends in
environmental conditions; and the application of scientific, technological and
managerial approaches which are inappropriate for small island developing
States.
V.
PROPOSALS FOR FUTURE UNEP ACTIONS TO ADDRESS THE
ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES FACING
SMALL
ISLAND DEVELOPING STATES
52. UNEP, in cooperation with the organizations supporting the
Programme of Action and using the relevant regional components of the regional
seas programme whenever appropriate, as well as its other UNEP programme
elements of relevance to small island developing States, will continue
contributing to the implementation of the Programme of Action through the
activities identified in chapter II of the present document.
53. Particular attention will be paid to promoting the efficient
protection and use of resources through integrated island management
programmes, including, in most cases, the totality of the island's terrestrial
environment, its coastline and the adjacent exclusive economic zones, by:
(a) Supporting the monitoring and assessment of
the state of the environment of small island developing States, including: social and economic factors affecting the
environment; changes in environmental concerns, priorities and policies; and trends
in identified changes;
(b) Contributing to the development of the
"vulnerability index" of small island developing States;