The majority of perishable and durable products enter markets without any requirement for methyl bromide (MB) fumigation. However, occasionally pests are detected - either before export or more often on arrival - and a disinfestation or quarantine and pre-shipment (QPS) treatment is required before the product can be released onto the market. MB has been the predominant QPS treatment because it can be applied relatively easily, it is fast acting and its efficacy in controlling a wide range of pests is well documented.
MB used for QPS is currently exempt from controls under the Montreal Protocol. QPS treatments are always applied after harvest - quarantine treatments for quarantine purposes and pre-shipment treatments typically for non-quarantine pests.
This section:
5.7.7.1 Agreement on QPS at the Beijing Meeting of the Parties
TEAP reported in April 1999 that MB used for QPS was estimated to be 22% of the global MB consumption, and that for some Parties, QPS consumption was increasing. A number of Parties in Beijing expressed concern that MB consumed for QPS is now much greater than when the exemption was originally agreed in 1992.
In the light of concerns about increasing consumption, Parties agreed to mandatory rather than voluntary reporting of QPS consumption to the Ozone Secretariat. Mandatory reporting of QPS will ensure that the statistics on the consumption of MB for QPS are more comprehensive in the future.
The Parties also agreed to a stricter definition of pre-shipment as a way of addressing concerns over potential inconsistencies in the interpretation of pre-shipment. The additional wording has helped to clarify the definition of pre-shipment:
Under Decision XI/12, the Parties requested TEAP to report in 2003 on the technical and economic feasibility of alternative treatments for QPS and to provide an estimate of the volume of MB that would be replaced by the implementation of alternative, non-MB QPS treatments. Under this same Decision, Parties were also:
5.7.7.2 The implications of exemptions on QPS research priorities
The current exemption renders research on QPS alternatives lower priority than uses such as soil treatments where consumption under the Protocol is controlled. For soil treatments, the need to ensure that alternatives are in place in developed countries by 2005 is widely recognised as urgent.
As a result, research laboratories involved in postharvest disinfestation of perishable commodities - and durable commodities that have QPS requirements - report continued difficulty in securing funds to continue research on the development of postharvest treatments that will substitute for MB.
5.7.7.3 Regulations that mandate the use of methyl bromide for QPS
Decision X/11 of the Tenth Meeting of the Parties requested:
"Parties submit by 31 December 1999 a list of regulations that mandate the use of methyl bromide for quarantine and pre-shipment treatments".
In response to this Decision X/11, 25 Parties provided information to UNEP (Michael Graber, UNEP Ozone Secretariat, personal communication). Six Parties provided information on MB but did not address Decision X/11. Thirteen Parties reported no specific regulations mandating the use of MB, including five that did not use MB at all for any purposes.
These Parties noted that, while there were no specific regulations requiring the use of MB, there were general Statutory Instruments or Standards that permitted its use, and officers of the Regulatory Authority selected MB in many cases as the only viable choice while others chose MB as this was considered to be the only option. Six Parties reported consumption of MB for QPS use in order to maintain compliance with importing Party regulations that specifically mandated the use of MB.
5.7.7.4 Regional efforts to reduce the amount of methyl bromide for QPS
MBTOC notes that some Parties are in the process of adopting control measures for QPS. For example, a new European Community Common Position (Document No 5748/3/99 REV. 3) introduces inter alia new requirements for QPS treatments that must be reported annually to the European Commission by each of the 15 Member States (MS):
The European Commission will also take steps to reduce the amount of MB for QPS in the light of technical and economic availability of alternative substances or technologies. In addition, the Common Position mandates a freeze on QPS consumption from 1 January 2006 based on average consumption in 1996-98, with provision for further reductions depending upon availability of alternatives.
The 1998 MBTOC Assessment Report elaborated on reducing MB emissions from soil fumigation using agricultural films (MBTOC 1998). Soil fumigation accounts for about 70% of the global use of MB. This section builds on this previous report by providing an update on technological developments for:
This section also reports on a method that has been developed to rapidly and accurately measure film permeability. Based on the research results using film for soil fumigation and a concern with the release of MB from such operations, some Parties have released minimum standards for the use of films for soil fumigation.
5.7.8.1 Emission reduction from soil fumigation
Agricultural films (also referred to as plastic sheets or tarps) are used to cover the soil to retain as much MB in the soil as possible for maximum fumigation efficacy. Since publication of the 1998 MBTOC Assessment Report, a significant amount of field and laboratory work has been undertaken to quantify and reduce emissions of MB from soil fumigation through a better understanding of the permeability of various kinds of agricultural films, and determination of the quantity of MB that degrades in the soil under natural and artificial situations.
There are two types of films. The first are called Polyethylene Film (PEF) films (high density (HDPE) and low density (LDPE)) that are relatively permeable to MB. And the second is Virtually Impermeable Film (VIF) which is considered to be quite impermeable to MB under controlled conditions.
Recent research indicates that the amount of MB emitted to the atmosphere is dependent on a number of complex and inter-related factors including: film thickness and type; method of film placement on the field; wind-speed over the field; soil conditions that contribute to degradation of MB such as organic matter, moisture, mineral content / concentration; soil flora; injection depth; and temperature (Miller et al. 1999; Thomas 1998; Ou 1998; Wang et al. 1998a; Wang et al. 1998b; Yates et al. 1998).
Polyethylene films
PEF continues to be globally the predominant agricultural film covering for soil fumigation. While HDPE film tends to provide a somewhat greater barrier to MB than LDPE film, a significant portion (up to 90%) of MB can nevertheless pass through these plastic sheets (Gamliel et al. 1998; Thomas 1998; Wang et al. 1999; Yates et al. 1998).
PEF also is susceptible to the same leakage problems and issues associated with their use as those described for VIF in the next section.
Virtually Impermeable Film
VIF film consists of either 1) multi-layer laminates with outer layers of low-density polyethylene and a barrier layer of polyamide or ethylene vinyl alcohol, or 2) a mixture of these materials, often call an "alloy".
Field research has shown that the use of VIF agricultural films can reduce emissions to less than 4% of applied MB, versus emissions of 68% of applied MB when using PEF/HDPE under similar conditions (Yates et al. 1998).
However, MB degradation issues, film logistical constraints, supply issues, and economical disparities need to be resolved before VIF agricultural films can be utilised to significantly reduce MB emissions on a wide-spread basis in commercial agriculture (Gamliel et al. 1998; Thomas 1998; Wang et al. 1998a). These include: consistent degradation of MB under VIF in variable soil conditions, film flexibility, availability of VIF, cost, field handling difficulties, and length of time the film needs to be on the field (Thomas 1998; Wang et al. 1998b).
In general, VIF can reduce MB emissions from soil fumigation by keeping the MB in the soil to allow for degradation (Yates et al. 1998) when:
In general, VIF is inefficient (if not entirely ineffectual) at reducing MB emissions from soil fumigation (Rice et al. 1996; Thomas 1998; Wang et al. 1999) when:
VIF film leakage at the edges and overlaps, cracks from photo-deterioration of VIF, holes from animals crossing the field before the MB is degraded will result in MB emissions, especially if the leakage is near the beginning of the fumigation and not immediately sealed. The longer the VIF film is on the soil, the more likely both the film and seal points could deteriorate due to wind or other weather conditions. Because of the greater MB retention by VIF compared to PE film, there is greater risk of farm worker and residential exposure unless conditions under the film promote MB degradation (Thomas 1998).
Since the publication of the 1998 MBTOC Assessment Report, little progress has been reported on environmentally sound ways to dispose of agricultural films after use in a soil fumigation, especially with regard to air quality, environmental and health issues should the films be burned. While recycling and biodegradable plastics would likely ameliorate the disposal process, no breakthroughs have been reported since the last MBTOC report regarding the difficult issue of recycling the combination of plastics used in VIF.
Because logistical realities may make it difficult to keep the VIF tarp on the soil for sufficient time to allow for degradation, several researchers are investigating ways to reduce the time necessary for degradation. Research has been conducted on: 1) the response of fumigant emissions to the addition of nitrogen fertilisers and organic amendments (Gan et al. 1998); 2) augmenting specific MB degrading soil bacteria to increase the degradation rate (Miller et al. 1999; Ou 1998); and 3) the addition of materials such as titanium dioxide to the agricultural film itself (Kobara et al. 1999). While these methods and products have succeeded in enhancing degradation of MB in the laboratory and small-scale tests, full-scale field tests will be necessary in the near future to test commercial viability.
In addition, further research will be needed to determine the suitability of this technology for commercial agriculture when used with MB and its alternatives such as metam sodium, telone and chloropicrin. These alternatives are also permeable to PE films. Work is on going to address the problems associated with the use of VIF film to reduce MB emissions. Some researchers are optimistic that the current obstacles can be overcome (Watanabe et al. 1999; Rimini 1999; Yates et al. 1998).
VIF permeability standards
Both the British Pest Control Association and French Ministry of Agriculture have released film permeability standards to ensure continuity and consistency of research into VIF. Policy makers could consider adopting these or similar standards in order to minimise emissions of MB from soil fumigations using VIF.
The British Pest Control Association has stated that film integrity, especially in regard to sealing sheets that are joined in the field, is a critical part of emission control. The adhesive that is to be used with VIF film must ensure the seal does not fail in windy conditions and be practical to use for the film and fumigant applicator. This organisation submitted the following standard definition to the European Community in September of 1999 for consideration in controls on MB use:
The virtually impermeable film (VIF) is a plastic film material with the normal physical and life-expectancy properties and which can be sealed effectively to drastically reduce methyl bromide emission to the atmosphere. The VIF must have a permeability standard which does not permit more than 1.0 gram of methyl bromide to pass through a square metre of film per hour from a contained concentration of 100% at 20 degrees C. The permeability standard units are in g m-2 h-1.
The French Ministry of Agriculture has a standard VIF definition with regard to soil fumigation similar to that proposed by the British Pest Control Association, but differs in that it allows no more than 0.2 g m-2 h-1 permeability. This "Standard for VIF" was put forth by the French Association for standardisation in September 1997 under the reference NF T54-195.
A rapid and accurate method has been developed to measure the permeability of agricultural films to MB and other soil fumigants. This method uses a static flow-through chamber to measure the permeability of films independent of the concentration gradient, allowing comparisons to be made rapidly under different application conditions (Papiermik et al. 1999).
Practices to reduce emissions from soil
MBTOC wishes to re-enforce the concepts that were described in the 1998 report regarding practices that can reduce MB emissions from soil treatments:
Examples of MB reduction using VIF film alone or in combination with lower concentrations of MB are provided in the section 5.7.4 "Alternatives for Soil Treatments".
5.7.8.2 Emission reduction by recovery from fixed-wall facilities
Currently, most fumigation chambers or enclosures release MB into the atmosphere during venting at the end of the fumigation period. There are very few fumigation sites worldwide where any attempt is made to capture the used MB in order to reduce emissions. Where they do exist, the impetus has been to meet local clean air requirements and therefore retain operating permits. Those facilities and the technologies being used were described in the 1998 MBTOC Assessment Report, as were other technologies still under development. The information given in the following section describes ongoing research on two of the technologies and presents information on recent demonstration projects.
Recovery of MB for recycling
A new recycling process has been developed and is being demonstrated to the industry by a Canadian company. The process uses zeolites to recover available MB for subsequent reuse. Zeolites are special type of silica-containing materials that have a porous structure which make them valuable as adsorbents and catalysts. The process supersedes an earlier zeolite-based process that was trialled unsuccessfully at the Port of San Diego, USA and in Santiago, Chile (MBTOC 1998). The new process has been altered and improved so that direct recycling is no longer necessary. Instead, the captured MB is recovered from the zeolite bed, refined in an off-line step and is potentially available for other fumigation operations (Willis 1998). This change significantly reduces the complexity of operation of the recovery plant because it is no longer necessary to have complex or expensive analytical equipment to measure MB concentrations as there is no direct recovery and re-injection into the fumigation operation.
The process of MB capture has been demonstrated on diverse operations such as fumigation of an empty ship hold, shipping containers and a lumber warehouse (Weightman 1999). Data from the ship hold trials indicate that the process is capable of capturing up to 90% of the applied MB (Fields and Jones 1999). No information has been published on the success of the recycling component of the technology. It is intended that zeolite reprocessing to capture MB for recycling will take place in Nevada, USA and the technology is now being promoted in North America. It would be difficult for the technology to be adopted in other parts of the world unless other reprocessing sites were established.
An issue with this process, and any other aimed at recycling MB, is whether the recovered MB is sufficiently pure to be able to be reused as "pure MB" to comply with the specifications for established quarantine schedules and whether it can meet the labelling requirements of individual countries to be sold as MB for any permitted use. Recycling processes have the potential to provide a means of reducing emissions from a range of fumigation operations, and making MB available for uses where MB alternatives are more difficult to implement.
Recovery and destruction
The 1998 MBTOC Assessment Report described a process under development in the USA using activated carbon to capture MB. The intention of developers was to provide a supply and disposal service by transporting the MB-laden carbon to a central processing site where it would be reprocessed or destroyed (MBTOC 1998). The further development of the process has been reported (Knapp et al. 1998, Leesch et al. 2000) and a small commercial unit is now in operation at Dallas/Fort Worth airport capturing MB from quarantine operations (McAllister and Knapp 1999). The plant reduces the MB concentration in the chamber down to a level of 500 ppm before venting the remainder. Once the plant has processed sufficient MB to fully load the activated carbon bed, it will be shipped to Pennsylvania to be incinerated. Preliminary data suggested that in excess of 95% of the MB being vented could be removed. After allowing for MB lost by adsorption into the commodities being fumigated, this represented a recovery of 50 - 75% of the original dose applied.
Previous indications were that the cost of a complete MB supply and removal service would be about 7 times that of the current MB price, but on a per unit basis for commodity treated, the price may be affordable (Leesch 1998). One of the critical features of this process is the environmental impact (truck fuel, energy use) of transporting equipment containing the activated carbon beds saturated with MB over some distance to the reprocessing or destruction plant. While it may be feasible to consider this technology in the continental USA and other areas where quarantine treatments are concentrated, it is unlikely to be cost effective in other parts of the world.
Modification of treatment schedules
MBTOC has suggested previously that Parties encourage their Regulatory Authorities to review their current treatment schedule requirements and confirm that the minimum amount of MB required to control quarantine pests are in practice. Recent research has shown that MB dose reduction is possible while still controlling quarantine pests. For example, cut flowers from Israel consist of many different species, each with different tolerances to MB and each with a range of pests of quarantine concern to overseas markets. The MB dose could be reduced to avoid phytotoxicity by 2-2.5 times compared to previous schedules while at the same time controlling three of the main quarantine pests (Kostyukovsky et al. 1999).
Mixing MB with other gases such as pure phosphine may also allow a significant reduction in MB concentration. For example, satsuma mandarins (Citrus reticulate) fumigated with MB, phosphine and a mixture of MB and phosphine. No injury was observed on fruit at 48 gm-3 of MB for 2 hours at 15, 20 and 25oC and mixtures of 14 gm-3 of MB and 3 gm-3 of phosphine for 3 hours at 20oC (Akagawa et al. 1997). However, waxed fruit were damaged when fumigated with the mixture. This research demonstrates that half the dose of MB could be feasible compared to the use of MB alone.
However, efforts at dose-reduction may be negated by other research that continues to increase the dependency on MB. For example, research is still being commissioned in Australia, the USA and other countries to develop MB-based treatments for export crops to Japan that will continue to add to the amount of MB consumed for quarantine and pre-shipment treatments. For example, Californian 'D'Agen' plums could be exported to Japan in the future following the results of research that showed treatment with MB at 48 gm-3 for 2h at > 19oC to control codling moth (Leesch et al. 1999). In order to compensate for absorption of the gas by the packaging, the MB dose was approximately twice that required to control the most resistant stage of codling moth. This treatment is similar to MB treatments on cherries, apples, walnuts and nectarines exported to Japan from a number of countries including the USA, Australia, New Zealand and France.
5.7.8.3 Constraints implementing recovery and recycling operations
The relatively small amount of research undertaken to develop recovery and recycling or destruction technologies is a reflection of the uncertainty surrounding the future use of MB and of the perceived additional costs and operational complexity to the fumigation industry of implementing potential technologies. Uncertainties include the possibility that the Parties could curtail the current exemption for QPS uses in the future. Parties, regulatory agencies and the industry who wish to encourage the development and use of recovery and recycling/destruction technologies may need to consider the following the impact of the following issues:
5.7.9 References - Methyl Bromide
5.7.9.1 Methyl bromide production and consumption
MBTOC. 1998. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee (MBTOC) 1998 Assessment of the Alternatives to Methyl Bromide. United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi: 358pp. Chapters 3 and 7.
TEAP. 1999. Report of the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP). Volume 2, Part 1, Section 4. UNEP Ozone Secretariat.
Anon. 1999. Common Position EC No 19/1999 adopted by the Council on 23 February 1999 with a view to adopting Council Regulation EC No .../1999 of ...on substances that deplete the ozone layer. Official Journal of the European Communities C 123/28 4 May 1999.
Anon. 2000. Ministry of Environment and Forests Notification. The Gazette of India - Extraordinary, 25 January 2000, Part II Sec 3(ii): 39 - 96.
MBTOC. 1998. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee (MBTOC) 1998 Assessment of the Alternatives to Methyl Bromide. United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi: 358pp.
Anon. 1998. Evaluation of Champs as a Nematicide in Tomato, Glades Crop Care Inc., Internal Document No. 98-23.
Anon. 1999. UNIDO Workshop on Alternatives to MB in the People's Republic of China. Beijing, 8-9 November, 1999, 131pp.
Anon. 2000. The use of steam for cut flowers and strawberries in Argentina. UNIDO Project Proposal ExComUNEP/Ozl.Pro/30/27.
Becker, J.O., Ohr, H.D., Grech, N.M., McGiffen, M.E., and J. Sims. 1998. Evaluation of Methyl Iodide as a Soil Fumigant in Container and Small Field Plot Studies. Pesticide Science, 52, 1, 58-62.
Bedi, J.S., Sauerborn, J., and P. Hebbar 1999. Efficacy of a Fusarium oxysporum formulation for the Control of Orobanche cumana. Proceedings of the 14th International Plant Protection Congress (IPPC), Jerusalem, 25-30 July, 1999.
Bello, A., Lopez-Perez, L., Diaz, V.L., Sanz, R. and M. Arias. 1999. Biofumigation and Local Resources as Me Br Alternatives. Proceedings of the 3rd International Workshop "Alternatives to Me Br for the Southern European Countries". 7-10 December, 1999, Heraklion, Greece.
Benoit, F. 1992. Practical Guide for Simple Soilless Culture Techniques. European Vegetable R & D Centre, Belgium.
Besri, M. 1999. Towards Managing Vegetable Soil-Borne Pathogens without MeBr under Greenhouse Conditions in a Developing Country. Proceedings of the 3rd International Workshop "Alternatives to MeBr for the Southern European Countries". 7-10 December, 1999, Heraklion, Greece.
Brown, G.S. 1999. Research on Replanting Apples without MeBr in Tasmania, Australia. Proceedings of the Annual International Research Conference on MB Alternatives and Emissions Reductions, San Diego.
Carpenter, J., Gianessi, L. and L. Lynch. 2000. The economic impact of the scheduled phaseout of methyl bromide. National Center for Food and Agricultural Policy - USDA Economic Research Service: 466 pp.
Cao, A. 1999. Conclusion on demonstration project on alternatives to the use of methyl bromide in soil fumigation in China. GTZ-Proklima Workshop on New Aspects in Implementing Methyl Bromide Alternatives in RMPs. Beijing, 30 November 1999.
Castella-Lorenzo, G. 1999. Lessons learned during UNIDO's project implementation in the methyl bromide sector. Proceedings of the Annual International Research Conference on MB Alternatives and Emissions Reductions, San Diego.
Charron, S. and C.E. Sams. 1999. Inhibition of Pythium ultimum and Rhizoctonia solani by Shredded Leaves in Brassica Species. Horticultural Science, 125, 5, 462-467.
Chase, S.A., Sinclair, T.R.,, Shilling, D.G., Gilreath, J.P., and S.J. Locascio 1998a. Light Effects on Rhizome Morphogenesis in Nutsedges (Cyperus spp.) : Implications for Control by Soil Solarization. Weed Science, 46, 5, 575-58.
Chase, S.A., Sinclair, T.R., Locascia, S.J., Gilreath, J.P., Jones, J.P., and D.M. Dickson. 1998b. An Evaluation of Improved Polyethylene Films for Cool Season Soil Solarization. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Florida State Horticultural Society: 326-329.
Chase, S.A., Sinclair, T.R., Chellemi, D.O., Olson, S.D., Gilreath, J.P., and S.J. Locascio. 1999c. Heat Sensitive Films for Increasing Soil Temperatures during Solarization in a Humid Cloudy Environment. Hortscience, 34: (6) 1085-1089.
Chavarria-Carvajal, J.A., Figueroa, W., and W. Gandia. 1999a. Suppression of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes on Pineapple with velvetbean (Mucuna deeringiana. Nematropica 29: (2) 118
Chavarria-Carvajal, J.A., Rodriquez-Kabana, R., Kloepper, J.W., and G. Morgan-Jones. 1999b. Combinations of Organic Amendments and Benzaldehyde for Control of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes: Effects on Microbial Activity. Nematropica 29: (2) 118-119
Chellami, D. 1998. Alternatives to MB in Florida Tomato and Peppers. IPM Practitioner, 20: (4) 106.
DeCeuster, T.J., H.A.J. Hoitink. 1999. Prospects for Compost and Biocontrol Agents as Substitutes for MB in Biological Control of Plant Disease. Compost Science and Utilization, 7: (3) 6-15.
Dinoor, A., Guske, S, and E. Nof. 1999. Biological Control of Purple Nutsedge (Cyperus rotundus) by Pathogenic Fungi. Proceedings of the 14th International Plant Protection Congress (IPPC), Jerusalem, July 25-30, 1999.
Duniway, J.M., Xiao, C.L., Ajwa, H. and W.D. Gubler. 1999. Chemical and Cultural Alternatives to MB Fumigation of Soil for Strawberry. Proceedings of the Annual International Research Conference on MB Alternatives and Emissions Reductions, San Diego, November 1-4, 1999.
Edelstein, M., Cohen, R., Burger, Y., Shriber, S, Pivona, S., and D. Shteinberg. 1999. Integrated Management of Sudden Wilt in Melons, Caused by Monosporascus cannonballus, using Grafting and Reduced Rates of Methyl Bromide. Plant Disease, Vol. 83, No. 12, 1142-1145.
Elad, Y. (1999). Induced resistance and effect on pathogenesis enzymes by biocontrol agents. Proceedings of the 14th International Plant Protection Congress (IPPC). Jerusalem, Israel, July 25-30, 1999
Elena, K. Paplomatas, E.J. and Petsikos-Panayatarov. 1999. Bio-Disinfestation: An Alternative Method to Control Soil Pathogens. Proceedings of the 3rd International Workshop "Alternatives to Me Br for the Southern European Countries". Heraklion, Greece, 7-10 December, 1999.
Fennimore, S. and S. Richard. 1999. Weed control in California Strawberries without Methyl Bromide. Proceedings of the Annual International Research Conference on MB Alternatives and Emissions Reductions, San Diego, November 1-4, 1999.
Freitas, L., Dickson, D.W. and D.J. Mitchell. 1999. MB and Chloropicrin Effects on Pasteuria penetrans. Proceedings of the Annual International Research Conference on MB Alternatives and Emissions Reductions, San Diego, November 1-4, 1999.
Gabarra, R. and Besri, M. 1999. Implementation of IPM: Case Studies: Tomatoes in Integrated Pest and Diseases Management in Greenhouse Crops. Albajes, R., Gullino, M.L. van Lanteren, J.C. and Elad, Y. Kluwer Academic Publishers (in press).
Gamliel, A., Grinstein, A., Zilberg, V., Benihes, M., Ucko, O., Klein, L., Uriely, E., Stanghellini, M.E., and J. Katan. 1999a. Combined Soil Fumigants and Solarization to Control Soil-Borne Diseases in Vegetable Crops. Proceedings of the 14th International Plant Protection Congress (IPPC), Jerusalem, July 25-30, 1999.
Gamliel, A., Austerweill, M. and G. Kritzman. 1999b. Non-Chemical Approach to Soil-borne Pest Management - Organic Amendments. Proceedings of the 14th International Plant Protection Congress (IPPC), Jerusalem, July 25-30, 1999.
Gilreath, J.P., Noling, J.W., Locascio, S.J. and D.O. Chellemi. 1999a. Efficacy of MB Alternatives in Tomato and Double-Cropped Cucumber. Proceedings of the Annual International Research Conference on MB Alternatives and Emissions Reductions, San Diego, November 1-4, 1999.
Gilreath, J. McSorley, R and McGovern, R. 1999b. Soil Fumigant and Herbicide Combinations for Caladium. Proceedings of the Annual International Research Conference on MB Alternatives and Emissions Reductions, San Diego- November 1-4, 1999.
Gromovykh, T, Shmarlovskaya, S. Corjanova T, and A. Malinovsky. 1999. Use of Different Forms of Trichoderma as a Soil Fumigant for Picea obovata. Proceedings of the Annual International Research Conference on MB Alternatives and Emissions Reductions, San Diego, November 1-4, 1999.
Gontmakher, T., Amira, M, and E. Khayat. 1999. Biological Control of Crown Gall Disease in Rose Rootstocks. Proceedings of the 14th International Plant Protection Congress (IPPC), Jerusalem, July 25-30, 1999.
Haglund, W. 1999. Metam sodium: A Potential Alternative to Methyl Bromide. Proceedings of the Annual International Research Conference on MB Alternatives and Emissions Reductions, San Diego, November 1-4, 1999.
Hutchinson, C.M., McGiffen, M.E. Jr., Ohr, H.D., Sims, J.J. and J.O. Becker. 1999 Evaluation of Methyl Iodide as a Soil Fumigant for Root Knot Nematode Control in Carrot Production. Plant Disease, 83, 1, 33-36.
Kipp, J. A., Wever, G. and C. de Krey (eds.). 1999. Substraat: Analyse, eigenschappen, advies. Elsevier Netherlands, ISBN 90 54390832. (English publication in preparation: "Guidelines for the application of growing media in horticulture based or CEN methods")
Kirkegaard, J.A., Matthiessen, J.N., Wong, P.T.W., Mead, A., Sarwar, M. and B.J. Smith. 1999. Exploiting the Biofumigation Potential of Brassicas in Farming Systems. Proceedings 10th International Rapeseed Congress Canberra, Australia, 26-29 September, 1999.
Kritzman, G., Peretz, I., Haman, O., and Z. Bar. 1999. Control of Soil-borne Plant Pathogens by Fordor 37. Proceedings of the 14th International Plant Protection Congress (IPPC), Jerusalem, July 25-30, 1999.
Kubota, M. and K. Abiko. 1999. Induced Resistance to Soil-borne Diseases in Cucumber. Proceedings of the 14th International Plant Protection Congress (IPPC), Jerusalem, July 25-30, 1999.
Locascio, S.J., Olson, S.M., Chase, C.A., Sinclair, T. R., Dixon, D.W., Mitchell, D.J. and D.O. Chellemi. 1999. Strawberry Production with Alternatives to MB Fumigation. Proceedings of the Annual International Research Conference on MB Alternatives and Emissions Reductions, San Diego, November 1-4, 1999.
Lopez-Aranda, J. 1999a. The Spanish National Project on Alternatives to MB: The Case of Strawberry. Proceedings of the Annual International Research Conference on MB Alternatives and Emissions Reductions, San Diego, November 1-4, 1999.
Lopez-Aranda, J., Medina, J., Miranda, L. and F. Dominguez. 1999b. Alternatives al Bromuro de Metilo en el cultivo de la Fresa en Huelva. Agricola vergel. September 1999
Lung, G. 1997. Biological Control of Nematodes with the Enemy Plant Tagetes spp. Proceedings of the Integrated Production and Protection, International Symposium, 6-9 May 1997.
Luzzati, J. and J. Katan. 1999. Alternatives for Soil Fumigation in Combating Apple Replant Disease. Proceedings of the Annual International Research Conference on MB Alternatives and Emissions Reductions, San Diego, November 1-4, 1999.
Mazzola, M. 1999. Managing Soil Microbial Communities to Enhance Growth of Apple in Replant. Proceedings of the Annual International Research Conference on MB Alternatives and Emissions Reductions, San Diego, November 1-4, 1999.
Mazzolier, C. 1999. Greffage de la Tomate en Culture sous Abris. PHAM Revue Horticole, 404, 44-48.
McKenry, M.V. 1999. The Replant Problem and Its Management. Catalina Publishing, July, 1999
McSorley, R., Standly, P.A., Noling, J.W., Obreza, T.A., J.A. Conner. 1998. Impact of Organic Soil Amendments and Fumigation on Plant Parasitic Nematodies in Southwest Florida Vegetable Fields. Nematropica, 27, 2, 181 - 189.
Melo, I.S. and E.S. Saito. 1999. Development of a Formulation of Talaromyces flavus for Management of Eggplant Wilt Caused by Verticillium dahliae. Proceedings of the 14th International Plant Protection Congress (IPPC), Jerusalem, July 25-30, 1999.
Mihira, T., Takeuchi, T., Fukuda, H., Kawakami, T., and F. Yamamoto. 1999. Physical Control of Southern Root-knot Nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and Brown Root Rot Caused by Pyrenochaeta lycopersici by the Combination of Root Restriction and Soil Solarization on Tomato in Plastic Greenhouses. Proceedings Kanto Plant Protection Society 46, 145-148 (In Japanese)
Matsumoto, T., Furuya, H., Tairako, K. and H. Yamamoto. 1998. Cross Protection of Spontaneous Mutants Derived from an Attenuated Tomato Strain of Tobacco Mosaic Virus TMV-L11A. Ann. Phytopathol. Soc. Japan 64, 213-216 (In Japanese)
MBTOC. 1998. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Methyl Bromide Technical Options Committee (MBTOC) 1998 Assessment of the Alternatives to Methyl Bromide. United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi: 358pp.
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