3.1 Background

The United Nations system, particularly the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the International Labour Organization (ILO), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO), in accordance with their respective mandates, have considered the potential hazards of chemical exposure. While these agencies have focused on the global implications of chemical exposure, they have shown particular concern over the potential hazards of pesticides that were imported and distributed without careful consideration of their toxic properties.

In 1980, UNEP, ILO and WHO established the International Program on Chemical Safety (IPCS). The IPCS has worked to assess the risk due to exposure to chemicals and recommended guidelines which serve as a reference for national governments in developing their own control measures and establishing standards. One of the major activities of the IPCS is the development of the Environmental Health Criteria (EHC).

Participation in IPCS is being expanded to include other United Nations and inter-governmental bodies, including the United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO), FAO and the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD). The IPCS also serves as an interim secretariat for the development of an Inter-governmental Forum on Chemical Safety.

The IPCS Coordinating Group for the Harmonisation of Chemical classification Systems was established in 1992. It provides a mechanism for promoting coordination of international activities in the area of harmonising chemical classification and labeling systems. The Coordinating group includes representatives of UNEP, ILO, WHO, United Nations Committee of Experts on Transport of Dangerous Goods (UNCETDG), FAO, OECD, existing classification system bodies, international organizations of suppliers, employers, workers and consumers, and environmental groups.

WHO intends to promote the use of internationally evaluated scientific information to enable member states to establish their own chemical safety measures and programmes.

3.1.1 Environmental Health Criteria

IPCS provides one of the major risk assessments and guidelines for exposure to chemicals to enable national governments to take regulatory action as deemed appropriate. International chemical risk assessments are published by the IPCS as Environmental Health Criteria Documents including laboratory testing methods, and risk assessment procedures.

The purpose of the Criteria concerning testing methods and risk assessment procedures is to promote the development, harmonisation and use by all countries of internationally agreed upon methods for such activities. The EHC risk assessments are based on all published data on a chemical and cover risks from all avenues of exposure,including from food ingestion, and air and water pollution.
3.1.2 WHO Environmental Quality Guidelines

The main functions of WHO are to direct and co-ordinate work on international health issues, and to encourage technical co-operation in health related areas with its member countries. The Organization's specific responsibilities include:

(i) developing international standards for food, biological, and pharmaceutical products;
(ii) proposing international conventions and agreements on health matters; assisting governments, upon request, in strengthening health services;
(iii) establishing and maintaining such administrative and technical services as may be required, including epidemiological and statistical services;
(iv) providing information, counsel and assistance in the field of health;
(v) promoting cooperation among scientific and professional groups which contribute to the enhancement of health; and,
(vi) promoting and conducting research in the field of health.

3.1.3 Development Of WHO's Environmental Pollution Programmes

In 1970, the Twenty-Third Session of the World Health Assembly established WHO's long-term programme in the environmental pollution field. The Assembly's resolution establishing the programme called upon the Director-
General to establish and promote international agreement on criteria, guidelines and codes of practice concerning known environmental effects on health, with particular emphasis on water and air pollution, occupational
exposures, food contaminants and waste. Since then, WHO has developed international guidelines on the risks of many chemical and physical factors to health and the environment.

Air and water quality guidelines are developed under the Programme for the Promotion of Environmental Health which is carried out by WHO's Division of Environmental Health.

3.1.4 Air Quality Criteria and Guidelines

WHO's involvement in the field of air quality goes back over thirty years and precedes the establishment of its general environmental programme. WHO's first Expert Committee on Air Pollution met in 1957, and found a disturbing lack of knowledge about the health effects of air pollution which was on the increase in many countries.
The Committee stressed the need for global research in the following areas:
(a) the health effects of air pollution;
(b) the ability of the atmosphere to disperse pollutants;
(c) emission controls on industrial sources of pollution; and,
(d) the use of indigenous indicators of the effects of air pollution.

The Committee also requested that WHO assist governments in drafting appropriate air pollution control legislation.

An alarming increase in the concentration of sulphur oxides
in the air of many industrial cities generated a request for WHO to convene the Expert Committee on atmospheric pollutants in 1963, with the aim of developing an international approach to the air pollution problem. In
1969, an the Expert Committee on Urban Air Pollution focused primarily on the effects of vehicle exhaust on air quality. The 1969 Committee recommended further study of health effects of lead, photochemical oxidants, hydrocarbons, and particulate substances.

Both the 1963 and 1969 Committees viewed air quality criteria and guidelines as important steps in the adoption of standards; although health effects were seen as the paramount issue in setting standards. The committees also
recognised the need to consider economic factors and technical feasibility in setting standards. The expert committees recommended that air pollution control standards should be adopted by national governments based on the precautionary principle when scientific evidence was not complete.

In 1970, the World Health Assembly adopted a resolution which stated that:

"due consideration should be given to the effect of water, soil, food and air pollution, noise and other environmental factors harmful to human health, and
to the need for the establishment of environmental health criteria, guidelines for preventive measures and methods of determining priorities and allocating
resources based on health problems and needs in both developing and developed countries".

WHO responded to this resolution by convening an Expert Committee which developed the first international air quality criteria and guidelines for four major pollutant groups, that is:
(a) sulphur oxides and suspended particulates;
(b) carbon monoxide;
(c) photochemical oxidants; and,
(d) nitrogen oxides.

The 1972 Air Quality Criteria and Guidelines for Urban Air Pollutants served as non-binding international guidelines for air pollutants until initiation of the International Programme on Chemical Safety in 1976. Under the IPCS, Environmental Health Criteria covering the same pollutants as those covered under the 1972 Air Quality Criteria have been issued. The Environmental Health Criteria specifically endorse or modify the 1972

Air Quality Criteria and
Guidelines. Air pollutants covered under the Environmental Health Criteria remained unchanged until 1987 when WHO's Regional Office for Europe issued Air Quality Guidelines for Europe.

3.1.5 Air Quality Guidelines For Europe (1987)

In 1983, the Government of the Netherlands approached the WHO Regional Office for Europe, to suggest that the organisation develop air quality guidelines for the region. WHO agreed to develop non-binding guideline values based on scientific risk assessments in making risk management decisions concerning ambient air quality and pollution emission limitations from specific sources.

The Air Quality Guidelines for Europe are the product of work by approximately 150 experts, participating in WHO organised meetings, working groups and consultations. Although primarily from European countries, there were some work-group members from the United States and international organizations, in particular, the United Nations Environment Programme.

At an initial planning meeting to discuss development of the guidelines, criteria for selection of the pollutants to be covered were established. The experts chose air pollutants of special environmental and health significance to countries of the European region based on the following criteria:
(a) severity and frequency of observed or suspected adverse effects of the pollutant on human health, particularly irreversible effects;
(b) distribution and abundance of the pollutant in the environment;
(c) the pollutants tendency to be chemically altered in the environment, particularly if such a transformation might result in the production of chemicals more toxic than the original pollutant;
(d) the pollutant's biodegradability and bio-accumulation in the environment, humans, or at any level in the food chain; and,
(e) the size and nature of the population exposed to the pollutant. Based on these criteria, the Working Group selected 28 pollutants for evaluation.

3.1.6 Framework for the Development of Environmental Management Standards

WHO Technical Committee number 207 has established a policy framework for developing international environment management standards. The Committee will strive to develop standards that advance the state of environmental
management and assist in harmonising national and regional standards. These standards should be adaptable for internal or external verification, certification, or registration, and should be cost-effective, non-prescriptive,
and flexible. The standards also should be based on sound, objective criteria supported by scientific principles.

3.1.7 International Standards Organisation

The International Standards Organisation (ISO) is a world-wide federation of national standards bodies (ISO member bodies). Kenya is a member of ISO through the Kenya Bureau of Standards. The work of preparing International Standards is normally carried out through ISO technical committees. Each member body interested in a subject for which a technical committee has been established has the right to be represented on that committee. International Organisations, governmental and non-governmental, in liaison with ISO, also take part in the work.

Draft international standards adopted by the technical committees are circulated to the member bodies for voting. Publication as an International Standard, requires approval by at least 75% of the member bodies casting a vote.

International Standard methods for both sampling and analysis are produced by ISO and each standard is dated to show when it was first promulgated. There is a series of air quality, water quality, and soil quality standards. Each is published separately so that it is up-dated without the entire set of standards being published every time there is a modification to an existing standard or a new method or procedure is adopted.

It has been observed elsewhere that national standards on each of these media are tending to converge on the ISO standard. ISO standards are adopted as national standards or produced as exact matches or technical equivalents of the relevant ISO standard.

Over the last decade, Kenyan efforts to reduce the environmental impacts resulting from industrial operations and services have been changing focus.

Governmental promotion of traditional command and control approaches such as end of pipe treatment has been reduced in favour of waste minimisation and other cleaner production approaches.

Environmental regulations of many countries are intended to ensure that pollution effluents do not exceed maximum threshold value, so as to limit the level of negative impacts of operations and waste effluent on the environment and human health.

The ISO 14000 standard is intended to supplement the regulatory based environmental management practices required of manufacturing and service industries by promoting proactive identification and management of enterprise activities impacting on the environment.