1.2 Major Competing Beneficial Uses and their Impacts on Soil

A number of activities which rely on, and make use of the natural resource, soil, and have impacts on it (the soil) include these that are outlined below.

1.2.1 Crop Production

Owing to moderate temperatures, adequate rainfall and relatively fertile soil, Uganda's leading activity is agriculture. A wide range of food crops for both export and subsistence are grown. Traditional farm tools such as the hoe, axe and ox-plough, are used. Agriculture is such a dominant activity
that it contributes over 50% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and has maintained this position for a long period of time. In terms of foreign exchange earning it contributes over 80% of the total export earnings. Coffee is the leading export crop contributing about 60% of the total export earning.

This is rather a decline from its previous status where it constituted over 95% of total earning need to quote the period this 95% level.

The decline is a direct result of low world market prices, which in turn resulted from the collapse of the International Coffee Organisation (ICO) quota system in 1989. Other non-traditional cash crops are making up the gap in the export market. These include simsim seeds, soya, beans, vanilla and maize. Export of cut flowers and other horticultural crops is steadily increasing.

Cotton production is widespread in all regions of Uganda but remains a small-holder crop. It was most affected by the political turmoil which destroyed the cotton ginneries and the marketing system. Production is recovering but
remains low at about 8,000 tonnes per year (1992) compared to 86,000 tonnes in 1970.

Tea production which is mainly a plantation estate activity was at sometime high but its production dropped from 23,000 tonnes (1972) to 1,500 tonnes in 1979. It has since recovered to over 7,000 tonnes.

Sugar-cane production has also improved following rehabilitation of the main sugar estates , namely, Kakira, Lugazi and Kinyara.

1.2.1.1 Impact 1: Land Degradation, and Soil Erosion

Loss of soil fertility: This is highly pronounced particularly in the highland areas which, however, are the more favoured agricultural areas, and in the rangelands. Soil erosion has occurred gradually but now its rate has increased owing to increase population. It has contributed to declines in soil fertility with subsequent reduction of agricultural yields and corresponding reduction in the economic gains.

Nutrient Loading and eutrophication: a secondary and important effect of soil erosion is the nutrient loading of water bodies. This has a negative impact on the fisheries and water quality.

Uganda is endowed with productive fresh water bodies which are in abundance constituting 17% of the total area of Uganda. Fishing is therefore, an important and relatively widespread commercial and rural activity carried out to meet the protein and cash needs of the population. Industrial scale fishing as also commenced, with establishment of fish processing factories aimed at the export market.

Fishing is an activity with a significant contribution to the foreign exchange earning to the tune of 5 million USD per year and is expanding. The major thrust includes increasing fish production, developing industries to supply the
necessary inputs, promoting export and, improvement of processing and marketing.

The fishing activity needs to be protected through standards aimed at diminishing nutrient loading arising from soil erosion.

Siltation of rivers and lakes due to soil erosion: Serious soil erosion observed in many places as a result of the destruction of soil cover and cultivation on steep hill-sides has caused siltation of water bodies. The soil carried by
water from the slopes to the water bodies causes sedimentation on the beds of lakes and rivers, gradually reducing their storage capacity, and flow. This therefore, reduces the economic value of the water bodies.

1.2.1.2 Impact 2: Land Fragmentation and Over- cultivation

Despite the existence of surplus arable land, there is a serious problem of land fragmentation. Close to 40% of agricultural holdings in Uganda are composed of two or more non-continuous small-holdings. Furthermore, 85% of the rural households produce both food and cash crops and raise livestock on holdings of less than 2 hectares.

Land fragmentation exists in all parts of the country but is most serious in the heavily populated districts of Kisoro, Kabale, Mbale, Kapchorwa and Bushenyi. Its most notable consequence is over-cultivation, very often without adequate soil conservation or regeneration measures. In addition, the traditional system of shifting cultivation or bush fallow - critical in restoring soil fertility - is now more difficult to practice. This situation has led to massive loss of soil through erosion and a rapid decline in soil productivity.

1.2.1.3 Impact 3: Inappropriate Farming Practices and Nutrient Loss

There are at least seven different farming systems in the country each with its own soil degradation problems The actual magnitude of the degradation in each system depends largely on population pressure, vulnerability of the soil to erosion, rainfall amounts and the general relief of the area. The most critical problem, however, is that the majority of farmers lack the knowledge and technology for improved farming.

1.2.1.4 Impact 4: Mechanisation and Soil Compaction

Mechanization has been promoted as a means of increasing agricultural production. Despite its advantages, a number of problems are associated with the technology. First, the use of heavy machinery for land clearing and post clearing operation has caused soil compaction and correspondingly in some areas of the country and this has led to a decrease in water permeability and therefore a higher run-off. Consequently accelerated soil erosion has occurred. Secondly, the tractor operators are largely untrained and hence, do not have adequate knowledge and skill in operating such machinery to work the land and other related activities.

1.2.1.5 Impact 5: Agro-chemicals and Destruction of Sub-soil Fauna

The residual effects of agro-chemicals on the country's environment are largely unstudied. Although purchased physical inputs (agro-chemicals, seeds and tools) represent less than 30% of the total cost of crop production, the use of pesticides is becoming widespread.

For example, the country's crop diversification policy, especially the encouragement of high value export crops, is likely to contribute to greater use of agro-chemicals.

Moreover, the major users of pesticides are small-holders who have had little, if any, training or skills in pesticide handling. When combined with chemicals used in the livestock industry and pesticides used to protect human health (such as, tsetse fly control), the total quantity of residual chemicals entering the environment is significant. This phenomenon requires to be addressed by standards.

1.2.2 Livestock Production

a variety of animals are kept for both subsistence and for sale. The activity is dominated by small-holders (95% of production), and indigenous breeds are also being reared. Cattle are the dominant livestock type. Other livestock
includes poultry, sheep, goats, pigs. Production levels are increasing and this is projected to increase in the future.

1.2.2.1 Impact 6: Overgrazing and Soil Erosion

Rangelands occupy approximately 84,000 sq km and are found in a corridor extending from Moroto and Kotido in the north-east, through the flat areas of Lake Kyoga, and South-westward to the Masaka and Ankole regions Close to 70% of the livestock in the country is in this cattle corridor and in the hands of traditional keepers, while the rest is commercial ranching.

In these areas, over-grazing is a serious problem. Particular areas affected are the counties of Ruhaama, Nyabushozi, Kazo, Buruli and the whole of the Karamoja region.

The resulting effects of over-grazing include soil compaction, soil erosion (particularly gully erosion) and the emergence of low-value grass species and vegetation with subsequent decline in carrying capacity and therefore, resulting in low productivity. Soil standards will play a vital role in reducing this negative impact.

1.2.3 Processing Industry

The processing industry is largely based on the processing of agricultural produce such as coffee, cotton, tea, tobacco, sugar, hides and skins, among others to prepare them for export or to produce commodities for home consumption. It consists of both small-scale and large-scale activities.
Such activities as coffee-hulling, cotton-ginning, jaggery- making are small-scale; while the textile, sugar, and soap industries operate on are large-scale. It provides a two way linkage with agriculture. The manufacturing and processing sector is in a poor state as a result of political turmoil and poor economic management. It barely contributes 8% of the GDP currently
but this is projected to increase as a result of a deliberate industrialisation policy.

The factory machinery in some industries is obsolete and dilapidated, leading to inefficient production and heavy pollution. Most of the equipment was installed by entrepreneurs in the period 1950 - 1969. When the Asian
Ugandans were expelled in 1972 the factories fell into disuse and some of these were looted during the wars.

Serious effort has been made to revitalise industry. The current _Medium-Term Sectoral Strategy - Way Forward II_ gives it a share of 15.7% (279.9 million USD) from the planned expenditure (1991 - 1995). The aim is to promote self sufficiency in consumer goods and develop better linkages with agriculture. Industry is now growing at about 7% per year.

1.2.3.1 Impact 7: Pollution

Small as the industrial sector's contribution to the GDP may be, its contribution to pollution of the water bodies is raising concern. A variety of effluents are released untreated to the water bodies by big industries located near them. Industrial chemical waste is dumped together with municipal waste, thereby causing contamination of land and the water table. This situation requires to be addressed by standards.

1.2.4 Mining

Mining on commercial scale in Uganda started in 1907 and minerals like tin, wolfram, copper, lime, gold, gypsum, asbestos mica, quartz and kaolinite are being extracted. While most minerals were produced on small-scale, copper
and limestone mining reached large scale levels in the mid- fifties. Most notable is Kilembe copper mine established in 1956, at the foot hills of Mount Rwenzori and the Tororo and Hima Cement factories established in 1954 and 1969, respectively.

1.2.4.1 Impact 8: Pollution

The pollutants (metals) have polluted the surrounding land thereby entering the food chains of both animals and plants and this may have serious negative implications on the well- being of humans, animals, and plants.

The negative aspects on soil arising from mining activities therefore, need to be considered and addressed by standards with a view to preventing any such future incidents.

1.2.5 Forestry and Wood Industry

There are different biographic regions in Uganda which support a great diversity of flora. Over 5,000 different species of higher plants are found in these biographic regions. This is outstanding for a country as small as Uganda. Thirty of these species are endemic to Uganda.

Four types of forests arise from the biographic regions. The gazetted forests; savanna woodland, tropical high forest and montane forests. Commercial wood extraction for timber now stands on average at 170,000 cubic metres annually for fine hard woods (Mahogany, Elgon Olive, Mvule).

1.2.5.1 Impact 9: Soil erosion as a result of inadequate forest cover

As a result of loss of forest cover, soil is unprotected and soil erosion has therefore occurred. This is widespread. It is necessary to prevent such loss of soil cover in order to protect the soil.